Can we domesticate germs? - Paul Ewald
what<00:00:15.980> I'd<00:00:16.099> like<00:00:16.189> to<00:00:16.250> do<00:00:16.460> is<00:00:16.580> just<00:00:16.759> drag<00:00:16.970> us<00:00:17.180> all
what I'd like to do is just drag us all
what I'd like to do is just drag us all
down<00:00:17.360> into<00:00:17.840> the<00:00:17.990> gutter<00:00:18.200> and<00:00:18.529> actually<00:00:18.950> all
down into the gutter and actually all
down into the gutter and actually all
the<00:00:19.220> way<00:00:19.250> down<00:00:19.460> into<00:00:19.700> the<00:00:19.849> sewer<00:00:20.060> because<00:00:21.050> I
the way down into the sewer because I
the way down into the sewer because I
want<00:00:21.320> to<00:00:21.380> talk<00:00:21.500> about<00:00:21.619> diarrhea<00:00:21.890> and<00:00:22.990> in
want to talk about diarrhea and in
want to talk about diarrhea and in
particular<00:00:24.680> I<00:00:24.890> want<00:00:25.310> to<00:00:25.369> talk<00:00:25.460> about<00:00:25.730> the
particular I want to talk about the
particular I want to talk about the
design<00:00:26.570> of<00:00:27.250> diarrhea<00:00:28.250> and<00:00:28.340> it's<00:00:28.640> and<00:00:29.029> when
design of diarrhea and it's and when
design of diarrhea and it's and when
evolutionary<00:00:29.779> biologists<00:00:30.109> talk<00:00:30.230> about
evolutionary biologists talk about
evolutionary biologists talk about
design<00:00:30.740> they<00:00:31.189> are<00:00:31.519> they<00:00:31.789> really<00:00:32.059> mean
design they are they really mean
design they are they really mean
designed<00:00:33.199> by<00:00:33.379> natural<00:00:33.590> selection<00:00:33.830> and<00:00:34.430> that
designed by natural selection and that
designed by natural selection and that
brings<00:00:35.690> me<00:00:35.839> to<00:00:35.989> the<00:00:36.080> title<00:00:36.350> of<00:00:36.440> the<00:00:36.500> talk<00:00:36.680> using
brings me to the title of the talk using
brings me to the title of the talk using
evolution<00:00:37.670> to<00:00:37.760> design<00:00:38.030> disease<00:00:38.300> organisms
evolution to design disease organisms
evolution to design disease organisms
intelligently<00:00:39.860> and<00:00:40.430> I<00:00:40.760> also<00:00:40.940> have<00:00:41.269> a<00:00:41.299> little
intelligently and I also have a little
intelligently and I also have a little
bit<00:00:41.690> of<00:00:41.870> a<00:00:41.930> sort<00:00:42.170> of<00:00:42.229> smartass<00:00:42.680> subtitle<00:00:43.640> to
bit of a sort of smartass subtitle to
bit of a sort of smartass subtitle to
this<00:00:43.879> yeah<00:00:44.659> but<00:00:44.989> I'm<00:00:45.080> not<00:00:45.199> just<00:00:45.440> doing<00:00:45.470> this<00:00:45.710> to
this yeah but I'm not just doing this to
this yeah but I'm not just doing this to
be<00:00:45.949> cute<00:00:46.220> I<00:00:46.430> really<00:00:46.519> think<00:00:47.030> that<00:00:47.089> the<00:00:47.659> subtitle
be cute I really think that the subtitle
be cute I really think that the subtitle
explains<00:00:49.010> what<00:00:49.339> somebody<00:00:49.879> like<00:00:49.970> me<00:00:50.150> is<00:00:50.330> sort
explains what somebody like me is sort
explains what somebody like me is sort
of<00:00:50.540> a<00:00:50.629> Darwin<00:00:51.170> wannabe<00:00:51.559> how<00:00:52.280> they<00:00:52.430> are<00:00:52.549> to<00:00:52.699> look
of a Darwin wannabe how they are to look
of a Darwin wannabe how they are to look
at<00:00:53.650> one's<00:00:54.650> role<00:00:54.949> in<00:00:55.760> sort<00:00:56.330> of<00:00:56.390> coming<00:00:56.750> into
at one's role in sort of coming into
at one's role in sort of coming into
this<00:00:57.140> field<00:00:57.409> of<00:00:57.739> Health<00:00:58.010> Sciences<00:00:58.460> in
this field of Health Sciences in
this field of Health Sciences in
medicine<00:00:59.119> it's<00:00:59.900> really<00:01:00.229> not<00:01:00.379> a<00:01:00.409> very<00:01:00.530> friendly
medicine it's really not a very friendly
medicine it's really not a very friendly
field<00:01:01.280> for<00:01:01.640> evolutionary<00:01:02.330> biologists<00:01:02.869> you
field for evolutionary biologists you
field for evolutionary biologists you
actually<00:01:03.710> see<00:01:03.920> a<00:01:03.949> great<00:01:04.189> potential<00:01:04.519> but<00:01:04.790> you
actually see a great potential but you
actually see a great potential but you
see<00:01:05.059> a<00:01:05.089> lot<00:01:05.239> of<00:01:05.360> people<00:01:05.630> who<00:01:05.780> are<00:01:05.869> sort<00:01:06.049> of
see a lot of people who are sort of
see a lot of people who are sort of
defending<00:01:06.500> their<00:01:06.619> turf<00:01:06.799> and<00:01:07.070> and<00:01:07.250> may
defending their turf and and may
defending their turf and and may
actually<00:01:07.909> be<00:01:08.479> very<00:01:08.720> resistant<00:01:09.229> to<00:01:09.380> try<00:01:09.650> to
actually be very resistant to try to
actually be very resistant to try to
resistant<00:01:11.540> when<00:01:11.659> one<00:01:11.869> tries<00:01:12.110> to<00:01:12.439> introduce
resistant when one tries to introduce
resistant when one tries to introduce
ideas<00:01:13.719> so<00:01:14.719> all<00:01:15.500> of<00:01:15.770> the<00:01:15.859> talk<00:01:16.039> today<00:01:16.219> is<00:01:16.340> going
ideas so all of the talk today is going
ideas so all of the talk today is going
to<00:01:16.670> deal<00:01:16.850> with<00:01:17.030> two<00:01:17.359> general<00:01:17.750> questions<00:01:18.170> one
to deal with two general questions one
to deal with two general questions one
is<00:01:18.679> it<00:01:18.859> why<00:01:19.490> are<00:01:19.759> some<00:01:19.969> disease<00:01:20.270> organisms
is it why are some disease organisms
is it why are some disease organisms
more<00:01:20.929> harmful<00:01:21.200> in<00:01:21.439> a<00:01:21.590> very<00:01:21.799> closely<00:01:22.009> related
more harmful in a very closely related
more harmful in a very closely related
question<00:01:22.850> which<00:01:22.880> is<00:01:23.149> how<00:01:23.719> can<00:01:23.990> we<00:01:24.020> take
question which is how can we take
question which is how can we take
control<00:01:24.920> of<00:01:25.039> this<00:01:25.249> situation<00:01:25.490> once<00:01:25.939> we
control of this situation once we
control of this situation once we
understand<00:01:26.539> the<00:01:26.960> answered<00:01:27.259> the<00:01:27.350> first
understand the answered the first
understand the answered the first
question<00:01:27.679> how<00:01:28.130> can<00:01:28.189> we<00:01:28.429> make<00:01:28.609> the<00:01:29.270> harmful
question how can we make the harmful
question how can we make the harmful
organisms<00:01:30.229> more<00:01:30.439> mild<00:01:30.740> and<00:01:31.009> I'm<00:01:31.490> really
organisms more mild and I'm really
organisms more mild and I'm really
talking<00:01:31.909> to<00:01:32.749> begin<00:01:32.960> with<00:01:33.140> as<00:01:33.320> I<00:01:33.409> said<00:01:33.439> about
talking to begin with as I said about
talking to begin with as I said about
diarrheal<00:01:34.490> disease<00:01:34.729> organisms<00:01:35.329> and<00:01:35.570> the
diarrheal disease organisms and the
diarrheal disease organisms and the
focus<00:01:36.229> when<00:01:36.679> I'm<00:01:36.710> talking<00:01:37.130> about<00:01:37.159> the
focus when I'm talking about the
focus when I'm talking about the
diarrheal<00:01:37.939> organisms<00:01:38.450> as<00:01:38.569> well<00:01:38.749> as<00:01:38.929> the<00:01:39.259> focus
diarrheal organisms as well as the focus
diarrheal organisms as well as the focus
when<00:01:39.679> I'm<00:01:39.740> talking<00:01:40.039> about<00:01:40.189> any<00:01:40.429> organisms
when I'm talking about any organisms
when I'm talking about any organisms
that<00:01:41.390> cause<00:01:41.569> acute<00:01:41.899> infectious<00:01:42.439> disease<00:01:42.799> is
that cause acute infectious disease is
that cause acute infectious disease is
to<00:01:44.079> think<00:01:45.079> about<00:01:45.200> the<00:01:45.829> problem<00:01:46.429> from<00:01:46.520> a<00:01:46.640> germs
to think about the problem from a germs
to think about the problem from a germs
point<00:01:47.210> of<00:01:47.299> view<00:01:47.479> germ<00:01:47.719> side<00:01:47.990> view<00:01:48.200> and<00:01:48.439> in
point of view germ side view and in
point of view germ side view and in
particular<00:01:49.850> to<00:01:50.179> think<00:01:50.390> about<00:01:50.749> a<00:01:50.990> fundamental
particular to think about a fundamental
particular to think about a fundamental
idea<00:01:51.679> which<00:01:52.009> I<00:01:52.130> think<00:01:52.399> makes<00:01:52.670> sense<00:01:53.329> out<00:01:53.869> of
idea which I think makes sense out of
idea which I think makes sense out of
tremendous<00:01:54.289> amount<00:01:54.619> of<00:01:54.770> variation<00:01:54.889> in<00:01:55.880> the
tremendous amount of variation in the
tremendous amount of variation in the
variation<00:01:57.170> in<00:01:57.229> the<00:01:57.289> harmfulness<00:01:57.679> of<00:01:57.710> disease
variation in the harmfulness of disease
variation in the harmfulness of disease
organisms<00:01:58.700> and<00:01:58.850> that<00:01:59.030> idea<00:01:59.509> is<00:01:59.749> that<00:02:00.319> from<00:02:01.069> the
organisms and that idea is that from the
organisms and that idea is that from the
germs<00:02:01.429> my<00:02:02.060> point<00:02:02.420> of<00:02:02.509> view<00:02:02.679> disease<00:02:03.679> organisms
germs my point of view disease organisms
germs my point of view disease organisms
have<00:02:04.429> to<00:02:04.579> get<00:02:04.729> from<00:02:04.939> one<00:02:05.090> host<00:02:05.270> to<00:02:05.359> another<00:02:05.450> and
have to get from one host to another and
have to get from one host to another and
often<00:02:06.530> they<00:02:06.619> have<00:02:06.740> to<00:02:06.859> rely<00:02:07.100> on<00:02:07.340> the
often they have to rely on the
often they have to rely on the
well-being<00:02:08.869> of<00:02:09.020> the<00:02:09.140> host<00:02:09.319> to<00:02:09.560> move<00:02:09.709> them<00:02:09.890> to
well-being of the host to move them to
well-being of the host to move them to
another<00:02:10.069> host<00:02:10.490> but<00:02:10.759> not<00:02:10.880> always<00:02:11.620> sometimes
another host but not always sometimes
another host but not always sometimes
you<00:02:13.160> get<00:02:13.310> disease<00:02:13.640> organisms<00:02:14.240> that<00:02:14.330> don't
you get disease organisms that don't
you get disease organisms that don't
rely<00:02:14.810> on<00:02:14.840> host<00:02:15.170> mobility<00:02:15.680> at<00:02:15.770> all<00:02:15.920> for
rely on host mobility at all for
rely on host mobility at all for
transmission<00:02:16.880> and<00:02:17.210> when<00:02:17.420> you<00:02:17.510> have<00:02:17.720> that<00:02:17.960> then
transmission and when you have that then
transmission and when you have that then
evolutionary<00:02:19.940> soup<00:02:20.120> theory<00:02:20.300> tells<00:02:20.540> us<00:02:20.720> that
evolutionary soup theory tells us that
evolutionary soup theory tells us that
natural<00:02:21.290> selection
natural selection
natural selection
favor<00:02:22.040> the<00:02:22.850> more<00:02:23.780> exploitative<00:02:24.380> more
favor the more exploitative more
favor the more exploitative more
predator<00:02:25.340> like<00:02:25.490> organisms<00:02:26.180> so<00:02:26.450> natural
predator like organisms so natural
predator like organisms so natural
selection<00:02:27.530> will<00:02:27.650> favor<00:02:27.760> organisms<00:02:28.760> that<00:02:28.850> are
selection will favor organisms that are
selection will favor organisms that are
more<00:02:29.090> likely<00:02:29.240> to<00:02:29.360> cause<00:02:29.540> damage<00:02:29.780> if<00:02:30.740> instead
more likely to cause damage if instead
more likely to cause damage if instead
transmission<00:02:32.180> to<00:02:32.390> another<00:02:32.630> host<00:02:32.870> requires
transmission to another host requires
transmission to another host requires
host<00:02:33.770> mobility<00:02:34.280> then<00:02:34.610> we<00:02:34.730> expect<00:02:35.060> that<00:02:35.560> the
host mobility then we expect that the
host mobility then we expect that the
winners<00:02:36.860> the<00:02:37.010> competition<00:02:37.580> will<00:02:37.850> be<00:02:37.970> the
winners the competition will be the
winners the competition will be the
milder<00:02:38.390> organisms<00:02:38.870> so<00:02:39.170> if<00:02:39.650> the<00:02:39.920> pathogen
milder organisms so if the pathogen
milder organisms so if the pathogen
doesn't<00:02:40.670> need<00:02:40.820> the<00:02:40.940> host<00:02:41.120> to<00:02:41.450> be<00:02:41.570> healthy<00:02:42.110> and
doesn't need the host to be healthy and
doesn't need the host to be healthy and
active<00:02:42.640> natural<00:02:43.640> selection<00:02:44.000> favors
active natural selection favors
active natural selection favors
pathogens<00:02:45.110> that<00:02:45.410> take<00:02:45.920> advantage<00:02:46.040> of<00:02:46.400> those
pathogens that take advantage of those
pathogens that take advantage of those
hosts<00:02:46.910> the<00:02:47.090> winners<00:02:47.390> in<00:02:47.510> the<00:02:47.570> competition<00:02:48.140> are
hosts the winners in the competition are
hosts the winners in the competition are
those<00:02:48.410> that<00:02:48.710> exploit<00:02:49.100> the<00:02:49.250> hosts<00:02:49.400> for<00:02:49.580> their
those that exploit the hosts for their
those that exploit the hosts for their
own<00:02:50.230> reproductive<00:02:51.230> success<00:02:51.530> but<00:02:52.520> if<00:02:52.760> the<00:02:53.030> host
own reproductive success but if the host
own reproductive success but if the host
needs<00:02:53.660> to<00:02:54.080> be<00:02:54.230> mobile<00:02:54.410> in<00:02:54.620> order<00:02:54.800> to<00:02:55.010> transmit
needs to be mobile in order to transmit
needs to be mobile in order to transmit
the<00:02:55.460> pathogen<00:02:55.910> then<00:02:56.150> it's<00:02:56.300> the<00:02:56.360> benign<00:02:56.630> ones
the pathogen then it's the benign ones
the pathogen then it's the benign ones
that<00:02:57.110> are<00:02:57.230> tend<00:02:57.560> to<00:02:57.620> be<00:02:57.710> the<00:02:57.800> winners<00:02:58.070> so<00:02:58.700> I'm
that are tend to be the winners so I'm
that are tend to be the winners so I'm
going<00:02:58.910> to<00:02:58.970> begin<00:02:59.090> by<00:02:59.660> applying<00:03:00.320> this<00:03:00.650> idea<00:03:00.830> to
going to begin by applying this idea to
going to begin by applying this idea to
diarrheal<00:03:01.700> diseases<00:03:02.030> sterile<00:03:02.540> disease
diarrheal diseases sterile disease
diarrheal diseases sterile disease
organisms<00:03:03.440> get<00:03:03.950> transmitted<00:03:04.520> in<00:03:04.640> basically
organisms get transmitted in basically
organisms get transmitted in basically
three<00:03:05.060> ways<00:03:05.240> they<00:03:05.780> can<00:03:05.870> be<00:03:05.930> transmitted<00:03:06.530> from
three ways they can be transmitted from
three ways they can be transmitted from
person<00:03:06.980> person<00:03:07.250> contact<00:03:07.730> person<00:03:08.330> to<00:03:08.390> food
person person contact person to food
person person contact person to food
then<00:03:09.320> to<00:03:09.470> person<00:03:09.770> contact<00:03:09.950> when<00:03:10.310> somebody
then to person contact when somebody
then to person contact when somebody
eats<00:03:10.760> contaminated<00:03:11.420> food<00:03:11.600> or<00:03:11.780> they<00:03:12.470> can<00:03:12.620> be
eats contaminated food or they can be
eats contaminated food or they can be
transmitted<00:03:13.190> through<00:03:13.220> the<00:03:13.460> water<00:03:13.640> and<00:03:13.940> when
transmitted through the water and when
transmitted through the water and when
they're<00:03:14.540> transmitted<00:03:15.080> through<00:03:15.260> the<00:03:15.290> water
they're transmitted through the water
they're transmitted through the water
unlike<00:03:16.190> the<00:03:16.430> first<00:03:16.610> two<00:03:16.880> modes<00:03:17.030> of
unlike the first two modes of
unlike the first two modes of
transmission<00:03:17.860> these<00:03:18.860> pathogens<00:03:19.460> don't<00:03:19.700> rely
transmission these pathogens don't rely
transmission these pathogens don't rely
on<00:03:20.240> a<00:03:20.450> healthy<00:03:20.810> host<00:03:20.960> for<00:03:21.170> transmission<00:03:21.710> a
on a healthy host for transmission a
on a healthy host for transmission a
person<00:03:22.130> can<00:03:22.220> be<00:03:22.310> sick<00:03:22.550> in<00:03:22.670> bed<00:03:22.790> and<00:03:23.030> still
person can be sick in bed and still
person can be sick in bed and still
infect<00:03:23.630> tens<00:03:23.900> even<00:03:24.230> hundreds<00:03:24.830> of<00:03:24.890> other
infect tens even hundreds of other
infect tens even hundreds of other
individuals<00:03:25.640> to<00:03:26.209> sort<00:03:26.390> of<00:03:26.420> illustrate<00:03:26.540> that
individuals to sort of illustrate that
individuals to sort of illustrate that
this<00:03:27.230> diagram<00:03:28.209> emphasizes<00:03:29.209> that<00:03:29.330> if<00:03:29.450> you<00:03:29.540> got
this diagram emphasizes that if you got
this diagram emphasizes that if you got
a<00:03:29.690> sick<00:03:29.989> person<00:03:30.380> in<00:03:30.560> bed<00:03:30.860> somebody<00:03:31.760> is<00:03:31.850> going
a sick person in bed somebody is going
a sick person in bed somebody is going
to<00:03:32.000> be<00:03:32.120> taking<00:03:32.480> out<00:03:32.600> the<00:03:32.900> contaminated
to be taking out the contaminated
to be taking out the contaminated
materials<00:03:33.920> they're<00:03:34.040> going<00:03:34.160> to<00:03:34.220> wash<00:03:34.400> those
materials they're going to wash those
materials they're going to wash those
contaminated<00:03:35.239> materials<00:03:35.690> and<00:03:35.900> then<00:03:36.590> the
contaminated materials and then the
contaminated materials and then the
water<00:03:36.890> may<00:03:37.130> move<00:03:37.370> into<00:03:37.880> sources<00:03:38.450> of<00:03:38.570> drinking
water may move into sources of drinking
water may move into sources of drinking
water<00:03:38.870> people<00:03:39.320> will<00:03:39.530> come<00:03:39.709> into<00:03:39.890> the<00:03:40.160> those
water people will come into the those
water people will come into the those
places<00:03:41.390> where<00:03:41.690> you've<00:03:41.780> got<00:03:41.900> contaminated
places where you've got contaminated
places where you've got contaminated
drinking<00:03:42.590> water<00:03:42.770> bring<00:03:43.160> things<00:03:43.340> back<00:03:43.489> to<00:03:43.760> the
drinking water bring things back to the
drinking water bring things back to the
family<00:03:44.150> may<00:03:44.270> drink<00:03:44.480> right<00:03:44.690> at<00:03:44.780> that<00:03:44.900> point<00:03:45.140> the
family may drink right at that point the
family may drink right at that point the
whole<00:03:45.739> point<00:03:46.040> is<00:03:46.220> that<00:03:46.610> a<00:03:47.000> person<00:03:47.510> who<00:03:47.600> can't
whole point is that a person who can't
whole point is that a person who can't
move<00:03:48.080> can<00:03:48.350> still<00:03:48.590> infect<00:03:48.950> many<00:03:49.280> other
move can still infect many other
move can still infect many other
individuals<00:03:50.390> and<00:03:50.600> so<00:03:51.200> the<00:03:51.380> theory<00:03:51.590> tells<00:03:51.890> us
individuals and so the theory tells us
individuals and so the theory tells us
that<00:03:52.750> when<00:03:53.750> diarrheal<00:03:54.620> disease<00:03:54.860> organisms
that when diarrheal disease organisms
that when diarrheal disease organisms
are<00:03:56.170> transported<00:03:57.170> by<00:03:57.290> water<00:03:57.500> we<00:03:58.310> expect<00:03:58.760> them
are transported by water we expect them
are transported by water we expect them
to<00:03:58.970> be<00:03:59.270> more<00:03:59.390> predator<00:03:59.780> like<00:03:59.900> more<00:04:00.170> harmful
to be more predator like more harmful
to be more predator like more harmful
and<00:04:00.680> you<00:04:00.739> can<00:04:00.890> test<00:04:01.070> these<00:04:01.220> ideas<00:04:01.280> so<00:04:02.180> one<00:04:02.330> way
and you can test these ideas so one way
and you can test these ideas so one way
you<00:04:02.510> can<00:04:02.660> test<00:04:02.870> you<00:04:02.959> should<00:04:03.110> look<00:04:03.200> at<00:04:03.350> all
you can test you should look at all
you can test you should look at all
diarrhea<00:04:03.860> bacteria<00:04:04.400> and<00:04:04.580> see<00:04:04.850> whether<00:04:05.030> or<00:04:05.180> not
diarrhea bacteria and see whether or not
diarrhea bacteria and see whether or not
the<00:04:05.390> ones<00:04:05.570> that<00:04:05.780> tend<00:04:05.930> to<00:04:05.989> be<00:04:06.080> more
the ones that tend to be more
the ones that tend to be more
transmitted<00:04:06.800> by<00:04:06.890> water<00:04:07.160> tend<00:04:07.820> to<00:04:07.880> be<00:04:07.970> more
transmitted by water tend to be more
transmitted by water tend to be more
harmful<00:04:08.300> and<00:04:08.660> the<00:04:08.750> answer<00:04:09.080> is<00:04:09.230> yep<00:04:09.620> they<00:04:10.010> are
harmful and the answer is yep they are
harmful and the answer is yep they are
and<00:04:10.430> I<00:04:10.459> put<00:04:10.700> those<00:04:10.850> names<00:04:11.150> in<00:04:11.390> there<00:04:11.510> just<00:04:11.660> for
and I put those names in there just for
and I put those names in there just for
the<00:04:11.959> bacteria<00:04:12.620> buffs<00:04:13.130> but<00:04:13.489> the<00:04:13.850> main<00:04:14.239> point
the bacteria buffs but the main point
the bacteria buffs but the main point
here<00:04:14.600> is<00:04:14.900> is<00:04:15.650> that<00:04:15.709> the<00:04:16.250> lot<00:04:17.239> of<00:04:17.359> them<00:04:17.480> here<00:04:17.630> I
here is is that the lot of them here I
here is is that the lot of them here I
can<00:04:17.870> tell<00:04:18.310> the<00:04:19.310> main<00:04:19.430> point<00:04:19.700> here<00:04:19.760> is<00:04:19.910> that
can tell the main point here is that
can tell the main point here is that
those<00:04:20.840> data<00:04:21.680> points<00:04:21.769> are<00:04:22.280> show<00:04:22.490> a<00:04:22.520> very<00:04:22.760> strong
those data points are show a very strong
those data points are show a very strong
positive<00:04:23.450> association<00:04:24.050> between<00:04:24.460> the<00:04:25.460> degree
positive association between the degree
positive association between the degree
to<00:04:25.730> which<00:04:25.850> the<00:04:26.090> disease<00:04:26.360> organism<00:04:26.840> is
to which the disease organism is
to which the disease organism is
transmitted<00:04:27.410> by<00:04:27.500> water<00:04:27.770> and<00:04:28.070> how<00:04:28.520> harmful
transmitted by water and how harmful
transmitted by water and how harmful
they<00:04:29.180> are<00:04:29.360> how<00:04:29.660> how<00:04:30.020> much<00:04:30.169> death<00:04:30.410> they<00:04:30.590> caused
they are how how much death they caused
they are how how much death they caused
per<00:04:31.070> untreated<00:04:31.580> infection
per untreated infection
per untreated infection
so<00:04:32.780> this<00:04:32.960> suggests<00:04:33.320> we're<00:04:33.680> on<00:04:33.740> the<00:04:33.860> right
so this suggests we're on the right
so this suggests we're on the right
track<00:04:34.160> but<00:04:34.580> this
track but this
track but this
to<00:04:35.599> me<00:04:35.810> suggests<00:04:36.620> that<00:04:37.129> we<00:04:37.370> really<00:04:37.720> need<00:04:38.720> to
to me suggests that we really need to
to me suggests that we really need to
ask<00:04:39.020> some<00:04:39.259> additional<00:04:39.409> questions<00:04:39.650> remember
ask some additional questions remember
ask some additional questions remember
the<00:04:40.580> second<00:04:41.000> question<00:04:41.509> that<00:04:41.689> I<00:04:41.870> raised<00:04:42.409> in<00:04:42.560> the
the second question that I raised in the
the second question that I raised in the
outset<00:04:42.919> was<00:04:43.069> how<00:04:43.490> can<00:04:43.550> we<00:04:43.819> use<00:04:44.060> this<00:04:44.330> knowledge
outset was how can we use this knowledge
outset was how can we use this knowledge
to<00:04:45.020> make<00:04:45.169> disease<00:04:45.710> organisms<00:04:46.310> evolve<00:04:46.520> to<00:04:46.759> be
to make disease organisms evolve to be
to make disease organisms evolve to be
mild
mild
mild
now<00:04:47.900> this<00:04:48.110> suggests<00:04:48.560> that<00:04:48.710> if<00:04:48.860> you<00:04:48.889> could<00:04:49.069> just
now this suggests that if you could just
now this suggests that if you could just
block<00:04:49.370> waterborne<00:04:49.879> transmission<00:04:50.120> you<00:04:50.960> could
block waterborne transmission you could
block waterborne transmission you could
cause<00:04:51.319> disease<00:04:51.770> organisms<00:04:52.430> to<00:04:52.909> shift<00:04:53.599> from
cause disease organisms to shift from
cause disease organisms to shift from
the<00:04:53.930> right-hand<00:04:54.319> side<00:04:54.560> of<00:04:54.590> that<00:04:54.710> graph<00:04:54.979> to<00:04:55.159> the
the right-hand side of that graph to the
the right-hand side of that graph to the
left-hand<00:04:55.580> side<00:04:55.669> of<00:04:55.819> that<00:04:55.909> graph<00:04:56.150> but<00:04:56.419> it
left-hand side of that graph but it
left-hand side of that graph but it
doesn't<00:04:56.719> tell<00:04:56.840> you<00:04:56.930> how<00:04:56.960> long<00:04:57.229> I<00:04:57.560> mean<00:04:57.949> if<00:04:58.219> if
doesn't tell you how long I mean if if
doesn't tell you how long I mean if if
this<00:04:58.879> would<00:04:59.090> require<00:04:59.240> thousands<00:04:59.900> of<00:05:00.020> years
this would require thousands of years
this would require thousands of years
then<00:05:00.379> it's<00:05:00.500> worthless<00:05:00.650> in<00:05:00.949> terms<00:05:01.129> of
then it's worthless in terms of
then it's worthless in terms of
controlling<00:05:01.789> of<00:05:01.909> these<00:05:02.030> pathogens<00:05:02.449> but<00:05:02.719> if<00:05:02.840> it
controlling of these pathogens but if it
controlling of these pathogens but if it
could<00:05:03.050> occur<00:05:03.349> in<00:05:03.650> just<00:05:04.099> a<00:05:04.189> few<00:05:04.370> years<00:05:04.580> then<00:05:05.120> it
could occur in just a few years then it
could occur in just a few years then it
might<00:05:05.419> be<00:05:05.449> a<00:05:05.750> very<00:05:06.229> important<00:05:06.770> way<00:05:06.979> to<00:05:07.009> control
might be a very important way to control
might be a very important way to control
some<00:05:08.000> of<00:05:08.030> the<00:05:08.210> nasty<00:05:08.690> problems<00:05:09.469> that<00:05:09.590> we
some of the nasty problems that we
some of the nasty problems that we
haven't<00:05:09.830> been<00:05:09.979> able<00:05:10.099> to<00:05:10.250> control<00:05:10.669> in<00:05:10.940> other
haven't been able to control in other
haven't been able to control in other
words<00:05:11.210> we<00:05:11.360> we<00:05:11.780> just<00:05:12.710> suggest<00:05:13.340> that<00:05:13.400> we<00:05:13.520> could
words we we just suggest that we could
words we we just suggest that we could
domesticate<00:05:13.909> these<00:05:14.389> organisms<00:05:14.960> we<00:05:15.080> could
domesticate these organisms we could
domesticate these organisms we could
make<00:05:15.409> them<00:05:15.560> evolve<00:05:15.830> to<00:05:16.159> be<00:05:16.280> not<00:05:16.729> so<00:05:16.879> harmful<00:05:17.120> to
make them evolve to be not so harmful to
make them evolve to be not so harmful to
us<00:05:17.509> and<00:05:17.870> so<00:05:18.139> as<00:05:18.620> I<00:05:18.770> was<00:05:18.860> thinking<00:05:19.129> about<00:05:19.219> this<00:05:19.460> I
us and so as I was thinking about this I
us and so as I was thinking about this I
focused<00:05:20.240> on<00:05:20.330> this<00:05:20.449> organism<00:05:21.110> which<00:05:21.259> is<00:05:21.469> the
focused on this organism which is the
focused on this organism which is the
alt<00:05:22.159> or<00:05:22.430> bio<00:05:22.789> type<00:05:23.120> of<00:05:23.270> the<00:05:23.629> organism<00:05:24.080> called
alt or bio type of the organism called
alt or bio type of the organism called
Vibrio<00:05:24.440> cholerae<00:05:24.949> and<00:05:25.310> that<00:05:25.460> is<00:05:26.199> the<00:05:27.199> species
Vibrio cholerae and that is the species
Vibrio cholerae and that is the species
of<00:05:27.650> organism<00:05:28.190> that<00:05:28.279> is<00:05:28.580> responsible<00:05:29.479> for
of organism that is responsible for
of organism that is responsible for
causing<00:05:29.779> cholera<00:05:30.289> and<00:05:30.830> the<00:05:30.889> reason<00:05:31.099> I<00:05:31.129> thought
causing cholera and the reason I thought
causing cholera and the reason I thought
this<00:05:31.430> is<00:05:31.610> a<00:05:31.639> really<00:05:31.969> great<00:05:32.090> organism<00:05:33.050> look<00:05:33.229> at
this is a really great organism look at
this is a really great organism look at
is<00:05:33.620> that<00:05:33.830> we<00:05:34.189> understand<00:05:34.639> why<00:05:35.060> it's<00:05:35.240> so
is that we understand why it's so
is that we understand why it's so
harmful<00:05:35.750> it's<00:05:36.259> harmful<00:05:36.560> because<00:05:36.830> it<00:05:37.610> produces
harmful it's harmful because it produces
harmful it's harmful because it produces
a<00:05:38.330> toxin<00:05:38.599> and<00:05:39.050> that<00:05:39.229> toxin<00:05:39.770> is<00:05:39.949> released<00:05:40.400> when
a toxin and that toxin is released when
a toxin and that toxin is released when
the<00:05:40.669> organism<00:05:40.969> gets<00:05:41.270> into<00:05:41.449> our<00:05:41.479> intestinal
the organism gets into our intestinal
the organism gets into our intestinal
tract<00:05:42.229> it<00:05:42.650> causes<00:05:43.159> fluid<00:05:43.610> to<00:05:43.879> flow<00:05:43.909> from<00:05:44.419> the
tract it causes fluid to flow from the
tract it causes fluid to flow from the
cells<00:05:44.810> that<00:05:44.990> line<00:05:45.050> our<00:05:45.379> intestine<00:05:45.800> into<00:05:46.039> the
cells that line our intestine into the
cells that line our intestine into the
lumen<00:05:46.400> the<00:05:46.699> the<00:05:47.240> internal<00:05:47.810> chamber<00:05:48.169> of<00:05:48.259> our
lumen the the internal chamber of our
lumen the the internal chamber of our
intestine<00:05:48.800> and<00:05:48.919> then<00:05:49.310> that<00:05:49.699> fluid<00:05:50.060> goes<00:05:50.569> on
intestine and then that fluid goes on
intestine and then that fluid goes on
when<00:05:51.020> we<00:05:51.139> can<00:05:51.379> which<00:05:51.650> is<00:05:51.770> out<00:05:51.889> the<00:05:52.039> other<00:05:52.159> end
when we can which is out the other end
when we can which is out the other end
and<00:05:52.550> it<00:05:52.639> flushes<00:05:52.940> out<00:05:53.210> thousands<00:05:54.110> of
and it flushes out thousands of
and it flushes out thousands of
different<00:05:54.409> other<00:05:54.800> competitors<00:05:55.490> that<00:05:55.520> would
different other competitors that would
different other competitors that would
otherwise<00:05:55.879> make<00:05:56.779> life<00:05:56.960> difficult<00:05:57.199> for<00:05:57.469> the
otherwise make life difficult for the
otherwise make life difficult for the
vibrios<00:05:58.039> so<00:05:58.759> what<00:05:58.909> happens<00:05:59.270> if<00:05:59.449> you've<00:05:59.569> got<00:05:59.690> an
vibrios so what happens if you've got an
vibrios so what happens if you've got an
organism<00:06:00.259> produces<00:06:00.650> a<00:06:00.680> lot<00:06:00.830> of<00:06:00.860> toxin<00:06:01.400> after<00:06:02.029> a
organism produces a lot of toxin after a
organism produces a lot of toxin after a
few<00:06:02.240> days<00:06:02.389> of<00:06:02.569> infection<00:06:03.080> you<00:06:03.229> end<00:06:03.500> up<00:06:03.620> having
few days of infection you end up having
few days of infection you end up having
you<00:06:04.370> have<00:06:04.460> to<00:06:04.580> fecal<00:06:04.819> material<00:06:04.909> really<00:06:05.270> isn't
you have to fecal material really isn't
you have to fecal material really isn't
it's<00:06:05.839> so<00:06:05.960> disgusting<00:06:06.259> as<00:06:06.560> we<00:06:06.710> might<00:06:06.830> imagine
it's so disgusting as we might imagine
it's so disgusting as we might imagine
it's<00:06:07.370> sort<00:06:07.490> of<00:06:07.550> cloudy<00:06:07.819> water<00:06:08.180> and<00:06:08.509> if<00:06:08.659> you
it's sort of cloudy water and if you
it's sort of cloudy water and if you
took<00:06:08.870> a<00:06:08.930> drop<00:06:09.169> of<00:06:09.229> that<00:06:09.440> water<00:06:09.680> you<00:06:10.039> might<00:06:10.159> find
took a drop of that water you might find
took a drop of that water you might find
a<00:06:11.000> million<00:06:11.779> diarrhea<00:06:12.500> organisms<00:06:13.069> if<00:06:13.250> if<00:06:13.520> the
a million diarrhea organisms if if the
a million diarrhea organisms if if the
organism<00:06:14.029> produced<00:06:14.389> a<00:06:14.449> lot<00:06:14.599> of<00:06:14.629> toxin<00:06:15.110> you
organism produced a lot of toxin you
organism produced a lot of toxin you
might<00:06:15.319> find<00:06:15.529> ten<00:06:15.860> million<00:06:16.069> or<00:06:16.279> 100<00:06:16.610> known<00:06:16.729> it
might find ten million or 100 known it
might find ten million or 100 known it
didn't<00:06:17.210> prove<00:06:17.330> a<00:06:17.509> lot<00:06:17.599> of<00:06:17.750> this<00:06:17.839> toxin<00:06:18.289> then
didn't prove a lot of this toxin then
didn't prove a lot of this toxin then
you<00:06:19.039> might<00:06:19.219> find<00:06:19.400> a<00:06:19.699> smaller<00:06:20.060> number<00:06:20.479> so<00:06:22.300> the
you might find a smaller number so the
you might find a smaller number so the
the<00:06:23.839> task<00:06:24.469> is<00:06:24.710> to<00:06:24.800> try<00:06:24.949> to<00:06:25.009> figure<00:06:25.129> out<00:06:25.250> how<00:06:25.580> to
the task is to try to figure out how to
the task is to try to figure out how to
determine<00:06:26.599> whether<00:06:26.750> or<00:06:26.870> not<00:06:26.960> you<00:06:27.379> could<00:06:27.560> get
determine whether or not you could get
determine whether or not you could get
an<00:06:28.099> organism<00:06:28.819> like<00:06:28.969> this<00:06:29.180> to<00:06:29.389> evolve<00:06:29.690> towards
an organism like this to evolve towards
an organism like this to evolve towards
mildness<00:06:30.289> by<00:06:30.500> blocking<00:06:30.979> waterborne
mildness by blocking waterborne
mildness by blocking waterborne
transmission<00:06:31.610> thereby<00:06:32.300> allowing<00:06:32.690> the
transmission thereby allowing the
transmission thereby allowing the
organism<00:06:33.259> only<00:06:33.620> be<00:06:33.800> transmitted<00:06:34.490> by
organism only be transmitted by
organism only be transmitted by
person-to-person<00:06:35.960> contact<00:06:36.440> or<00:06:36.949> person<00:06:37.250> food
person-to-person contact or person food
person-to-person contact or person food
person<00:06:37.729> contact<00:06:38.180> both<00:06:38.330> of<00:06:38.509> which<00:06:38.629> would
person contact both of which would
person contact both of which would
really<00:06:38.990> require<00:06:39.319> that<00:06:39.860> people<00:06:40.279> be<00:06:40.490> mobile<00:06:40.849> and
really require that people be mobile and
really require that people be mobile and
fairly<00:06:41.300> healthy<00:06:41.479> for<00:06:41.750> transmission<00:06:42.289> now<00:06:42.949> I
fairly healthy for transmission now I
fairly healthy for transmission now I
can<00:06:43.759> think<00:06:43.880> of<00:06:44.000> some<00:06:44.180> of<00:06:44.270> some<00:06:44.449> possible
can think of some of some possible
can think of some of some possible
experiments<00:06:45.620> one<00:06:45.770> would<00:06:45.919> be<00:06:46.009> to<00:06:46.339> take<00:06:46.370> a<00:06:46.520> lot
experiments one would be to take a lot
experiments one would be to take a lot
of<00:06:46.789> different<00:06:47.029> strains<00:06:47.449> of<00:06:47.690> this<00:06:47.990> organism
of different strains of this organism
of different strains of this organism
something
something
something
a<00:06:49.010> lot<00:06:49.250> of<00:06:49.370> toxins<00:06:49.730> something<00:06:50.030> produced<00:06:50.210> a
a lot of toxins something produced a
a lot of toxins something produced a
little<00:06:50.450> and<00:06:51.790> take<00:06:52.790> those<00:06:52.970> strains<00:06:53.270> and<00:06:53.450> spew
little and take those strains and spew
little and take those strains and spew
them<00:06:54.500> out<00:06:54.620> in<00:06:54.830> different<00:06:54.980> countries<00:06:55.490> some
them out in different countries some
them out in different countries some
countries<00:06:56.090> that<00:06:56.300> might<00:06:56.420> have<00:06:56.660> clean<00:06:57.320> water
countries that might have clean water
countries that might have clean water
supplies<00:06:57.950> they<00:06:58.190> so<00:06:58.310> you<00:06:58.340> can't<00:06:58.670> get
supplies they so you can't get
supplies they so you can't get
waterborne<00:06:59.180> transmission<00:06:59.390> you<00:07:00.050> expect<00:07:00.350> the
waterborne transmission you expect the
waterborne transmission you expect the
organism<00:07:00.830> to<00:07:00.920> evolve<00:07:01.070> to<00:07:01.190> mildness<00:07:01.340> there
organism to evolve to mildness there
organism to evolve to mildness there
other<00:07:02.570> countries<00:07:03.020> in<00:07:03.140> which<00:07:03.260> you've<00:07:03.440> got<00:07:03.560> a
other countries in which you've got a
other countries in which you've got a
lot<00:07:03.800> of<00:07:03.830> waterborne<00:07:04.310> transmission<00:07:04.550> there<00:07:05.510> you
lot of waterborne transmission there you
lot of waterborne transmission there you
expect<00:07:05.960> these<00:07:06.110> organisms<00:07:06.530> to<00:07:07.040> evolve<00:07:07.390> towards
expect these organisms to evolve towards
expect these organisms to evolve towards
a<00:07:08.570> high<00:07:08.900> level<00:07:09.170> of<00:07:09.350> harmfulness<00:07:09.770> right
a high level of harmfulness right
a high level of harmfulness right
there's<00:07:11.870> a<00:07:11.930> little<00:07:12.170> ethical<00:07:12.440> problem<00:07:12.770> in<00:07:12.860> this
there's a little ethical problem in this
there's a little ethical problem in this
experiment<00:07:13.690> yeah<00:07:14.690> I<00:07:14.720> hope<00:07:14.990> I<00:07:15.290> was<00:07:15.410> I<00:07:16.040> was
experiment yeah I hope I was I was
experiment yeah I hope I was I was
hoping<00:07:16.520> to<00:07:16.610> hear<00:07:16.760> a<00:07:16.790> few<00:07:16.910> gasps<00:07:17.330> at<00:07:17.420> least<00:07:17.570> that
hoping to hear a few gasps at least that
hoping to hear a few gasps at least that
makes<00:07:17.870> me<00:07:17.990> worried<00:07:18.260> a<00:07:18.350> little<00:07:18.440> bit<00:07:18.590> but<00:07:19.190> anyhow
makes me worried a little bit but anyhow
makes me worried a little bit but anyhow
the<00:07:20.720> laughter<00:07:21.080> can<00:07:21.230> makes<00:07:21.650> me<00:07:21.770> feel<00:07:21.920> a<00:07:21.950> little
the laughter can makes me feel a little
the laughter can makes me feel a little
bit<00:07:22.220> better<00:07:22.390> and<00:07:23.390> this<00:07:23.990> ethical<00:07:24.380> problems<00:07:24.710> a
bit better and this ethical problems a
bit better and this ethical problems a
big<00:07:25.160> problem<00:07:25.640> just<00:07:25.670> to<00:07:25.880> emphasize<00:07:26.240> this<00:07:26.510> this
big problem just to emphasize this this
big problem just to emphasize this this
is<00:07:26.930> what<00:07:27.080> we're<00:07:27.230> really<00:07:27.350> talking<00:07:27.590> about
is what we're really talking about
is what we're really talking about
here's<00:07:28.220> a<00:07:28.280> girl's<00:07:28.550> almost<00:07:28.910> dead<00:07:29.120> she<00:07:29.390> got
here's a girl's almost dead she got
here's a girl's almost dead she got
rehydration<00:07:30.260> therapy<00:07:30.440> she's<00:07:30.950> being<00:07:31.400> cooked
rehydration therapy she's being cooked
rehydration therapy she's being cooked
up<00:07:32.210> within<00:07:32.690> a<00:07:32.720> few<00:07:32.870> days<00:07:33.080> she<00:07:33.350> was<00:07:33.500> looking
up within a few days she was looking
up within a few days she was looking
like<00:07:33.920> a<00:07:33.980> completely<00:07:34.370> different<00:07:34.550> person
like a completely different person
like a completely different person
so<00:07:35.510> we<00:07:35.630> don't<00:07:35.810> want<00:07:35.930> to<00:07:36.020> run<00:07:36.140> an<00:07:36.200> experiment
so we don't want to run an experiment
so we don't want to run an experiment
like<00:07:36.710> that<00:07:36.860> but<00:07:37.070> interestingly<00:07:37.370> just<00:07:38.330> that
like that but interestingly just that
like that but interestingly just that
thing<00:07:39.170> happened<00:07:39.680> in<00:07:39.830> 1991<00:07:40.870> 1991<00:07:41.870> this<00:07:42.470> cholera
thing happened in 1991 1991 this cholera
thing happened in 1991 1991 this cholera
organism<00:07:43.520> got<00:07:43.850> into<00:07:44.150> Lima<00:07:44.420> Peru<00:07:44.630> and<00:07:45.020> within
organism got into Lima Peru and within
organism got into Lima Peru and within
two<00:07:45.650> months<00:07:45.830> it<00:07:46.310> had<00:07:46.460> spread<00:07:46.670> to<00:07:46.850> the
two months it had spread to the
two months it had spread to the
neighboring<00:07:47.090> areas<00:07:47.690> now<00:07:48.260> I<00:07:49.360> didn't<00:07:50.360> have<00:07:50.450> I
neighboring areas now I didn't have I
neighboring areas now I didn't have I
don't<00:07:50.870> know<00:07:50.960> how<00:07:51.050> that<00:07:51.110> happened<00:07:51.620> and<00:07:51.830> I
don't know how that happened and I
don't know how that happened and I
didn't<00:07:52.370> have<00:07:52.460> anything<00:07:52.670> to<00:07:52.760> do<00:07:52.940> with<00:07:52.970> that<00:07:53.090> I
didn't have anything to do with that I
didn't have anything to do with that I
promise<00:07:55.220> you<00:07:55.370> I<00:07:55.610> don't<00:07:56.060> think<00:07:56.180> anybody<00:07:56.630> knows
promise you I don't think anybody knows
promise you I don't think anybody knows
but<00:07:57.230> I'm<00:07:57.620> not<00:07:57.860> averse<00:07:58.160> to<00:07:58.190> to<00:07:58.820> once<00:07:59.150> that's
but I'm not averse to to once that's
but I'm not averse to to once that's
happened<00:07:59.480> to<00:08:00.140> see<00:08:00.380> whether<00:08:01.040> or<00:08:01.190> not<00:08:01.310> the
happened to see whether or not the
happened to see whether or not the
prediction<00:08:02.030> that<00:08:02.180> we<00:08:02.300> would<00:08:02.420> make<00:08:02.630> that<00:08:02.900> I<00:08:02.990> did
prediction that we would make that I did
prediction that we would make that I did
make<00:08:03.320> before<00:08:03.710> actually<00:08:04.400> holds<00:08:04.640> up<00:08:04.760> did<00:08:05.150> the
make before actually holds up did the
make before actually holds up did the
organism<00:08:05.840> evolve<00:08:06.110> to<00:08:06.350> mildness<00:08:06.500> in<00:08:06.950> a<00:08:07.040> place
organism evolve to mildness in a place
organism evolve to mildness in a place
like<00:08:07.340> Chile<00:08:07.820> which<00:08:08.540> has<00:08:08.810> some<00:08:09.290> of<00:08:09.380> the<00:08:09.470> most
like Chile which has some of the most
like Chile which has some of the most
well<00:08:10.370> protected<00:08:10.550> water<00:08:11.000> supplies<00:08:11.330> in<00:08:11.480> Latin
well protected water supplies in Latin
well protected water supplies in Latin
America<00:08:12.110> and<00:08:12.290> did<00:08:12.650> it<00:08:12.800> evolve<00:08:13.670> to<00:08:14.150> be<00:08:14.270> more
America and did it evolve to be more
America and did it evolve to be more
harmful<00:08:14.750> in<00:08:15.050> a<00:08:15.110> place<00:08:15.290> like<00:08:15.410> Ecuador<00:08:15.830> which
harmful in a place like Ecuador which
harmful in a place like Ecuador which
has<00:08:16.700> some<00:08:17.090> of<00:08:17.180> the<00:08:17.240> least<00:08:17.360> well<00:08:17.660> protected<00:08:17.990> and
has some of the least well protected and
has some of the least well protected and
Peru's<00:08:18.830> got<00:08:18.980> something<00:08:19.310> sort<00:08:19.520> of<00:08:19.610> in-between
Peru's got something sort of in-between
Peru's got something sort of in-between
and<00:08:20.390> so<00:08:21.110> with<00:08:22.180> funding<00:08:23.180> from<00:08:23.300> those<00:08:23.570> at
and so with funding from those at
and so with funding from those at
Krueger<00:08:23.990> Foundation<00:08:24.560> I<00:08:24.710> got<00:08:25.130> a<00:08:25.160> lot<00:08:25.340> of
Krueger Foundation I got a lot of
Krueger Foundation I got a lot of
strains<00:08:25.730> from<00:08:26.240> these<00:08:26.930> different<00:08:27.350> countries
strains from these different countries
strains from these different countries
and<00:08:27.800> I<00:08:27.860> met<00:08:28.040> we<00:08:28.130> measure<00:08:28.340> their<00:08:28.580> toxin
and I met we measure their toxin
and I met we measure their toxin
production<00:08:29.090> in<00:08:29.330> the<00:08:29.390> lab<00:08:29.600> and<00:08:29.900> we<00:08:30.650> found<00:08:30.890> that
production in the lab and we found that
production in the lab and we found that
in<00:08:31.580> Chile<00:08:31.960> within<00:08:32.960> two<00:08:33.140> months<00:08:33.290> of<00:08:33.650> the
in Chile within two months of the
in Chile within two months of the
invasion<00:08:34.220> of<00:08:34.430> Peru<00:08:34.610> you<00:08:34.820> had<00:08:35.030> strains
invasion of Peru you had strains
invasion of Peru you had strains
entering<00:08:35.750> Chile<00:08:36.050> and<00:08:36.280> when<00:08:37.280> you<00:08:37.370> look<00:08:37.520> at
entering Chile and when you look at
entering Chile and when you look at
those<00:08:37.790> strains<00:08:38.180> in<00:08:38.570> the<00:08:38.780> very<00:08:38.960> upper<00:08:39.080> left
those strains in the very upper left
those strains in the very upper left
hand<00:08:39.500> side<00:08:39.770> of<00:08:40.010> this<00:08:40.130> graph<00:08:40.430> you<00:08:40.670> see<00:08:40.850> a<00:08:41.030> lot<00:08:41.420> of
hand side of this graph you see a lot of
hand side of this graph you see a lot of
variation<00:08:42.080> in<00:08:42.140> their<00:08:42.290> toxin<00:08:42.680> production<00:08:42.890> each
variation in their toxin production each
variation in their toxin production each
dot<00:08:43.520> corresponds<00:08:44.090> to<00:08:44.210> an<00:08:44.390> isolate<00:08:44.780> from<00:08:44.900> a
dot corresponds to an isolate from a
dot corresponds to an isolate from a
different<00:08:45.200> person<00:08:45.680> a<00:08:45.800> lot<00:08:46.280> of<00:08:46.400> variation<00:08:46.820> on
different person a lot of variation on
different person a lot of variation on
which<00:08:47.000> natural<00:08:47.390> selection<00:08:47.420> act<00:08:47.930> can<00:08:48.350> act<00:08:48.560> but
which natural selection act can act but
which natural selection act can act but
the<00:08:48.920> interesting<00:08:49.340> point<00:08:49.580> is<00:08:49.760> if<00:08:50.030> you<00:08:50.150> look
the interesting point is if you look
the interesting point is if you look
over<00:08:50.540> the<00:08:50.630> 1990s<00:08:51.230> within<00:08:51.470> a<00:08:51.560> few<00:08:51.800> years<00:08:52.100> the
over the 1990s within a few years the
over the 1990s within a few years the
organisms<00:08:53.240> evolved<00:08:53.750> to<00:08:54.200> be<00:08:54.350> more<00:08:54.380> mild<00:08:54.680> they
organisms evolved to be more mild they
organisms evolved to be more mild they
evolved<00:08:55.220> to<00:08:55.340> produce<00:08:55.430> less<00:08:55.760> toxin<00:08:56.240> and<00:08:56.510> to
evolved to produce less toxin and to
evolved to produce less toxin and to
just<00:08:57.320> give<00:08:57.470> you<00:08:57.500> a<00:08:57.620> sense<00:08:57.800> of<00:08:57.980> how<00:08:58.160> important
just give you a sense of how important
just give you a sense of how important
this<00:08:58.640> might<00:08:58.880> be<00:08:59.060> if<00:08:59.420> we<00:08:59.540> look<00:08:59.690> in<00:08:59.810> 1995<00:09:00.590> we<00:09:01.190> find
this might be if we look in 1995 we find
this might be if we look in 1995 we find
that<00:09:02.420> there's<00:09:02.660> only<00:09:02.810> one<00:09:03.080> case
that there's only one case
that there's only one case
of<00:09:03.709> caller<00:09:04.489> on<00:09:04.729> average<00:09:05.089> reported<00:09:05.599> from<00:09:05.779> Chile
of caller on average reported from Chile
of caller on average reported from Chile
every<00:09:06.979> two<00:09:07.129> years<00:09:07.160> so<00:09:07.759> it's<00:09:07.879> controlled
every two years so it's controlled
every two years so it's controlled
apology<00:09:08.599> that's<00:09:08.749> not<00:09:08.899> much<00:09:09.109> we<00:09:09.259> have<00:09:09.470> in
apology that's not much we have in
apology that's not much we have in
America<00:09:10.009> a<00:09:10.189> cholera<00:09:10.789> that's<00:09:11.059> acquired
America a cholera that's acquired
America a cholera that's acquired
endemically<00:09:12.589> and<00:09:12.769> we<00:09:12.859> don't<00:09:13.009> think<00:09:13.099> we've<00:09:13.249> got
endemically and we don't think we've got
endemically and we don't think we've got
a<00:09:13.429> problem<00:09:13.729> here<00:09:14.089> they<00:09:14.329> didn't<00:09:14.599> they<00:09:14.749> solved
a problem here they didn't they solved
a problem here they didn't they solved
the<00:09:15.109> problem<00:09:15.470> in<00:09:15.559> Chile<00:09:16.239> but<00:09:17.239> before<00:09:17.599> we<00:09:17.689> get
the problem in Chile but before we get
the problem in Chile but before we get
too<00:09:17.899> confident<00:09:18.289> we've<00:09:18.470> got<00:09:18.559> to<00:09:18.649> look<00:09:18.739> at<00:09:18.829> some
too confident we've got to look at some
too confident we've got to look at some
of<00:09:18.979> those<00:09:19.099> other<00:09:19.220> countries<00:09:19.459> make<00:09:19.819> sure<00:09:19.939> that
of those other countries make sure that
of those other countries make sure that
this<00:09:20.209> organism<00:09:20.659> doesn't<00:09:20.809> just<00:09:21.139> always<00:09:21.319> evolve
this organism doesn't just always evolve
this organism doesn't just always evolve
towards<00:09:22.099> mildness<00:09:22.429> well<00:09:22.939> improve<00:09:23.389> it<00:09:23.509> didn't
towards mildness well improve it didn't
towards mildness well improve it didn't
and<00:09:24.279> in<00:09:25.279> Ecuador<00:09:25.759> remember<00:09:26.119> this<00:09:26.239> is<00:09:26.359> the
and in Ecuador remember this is the
and in Ecuador remember this is the
place<00:09:26.629> where<00:09:26.869> there's<00:09:27.049> the<00:09:27.139> highest
place where there's the highest
place where there's the highest
potential<00:09:27.709> waterborne<00:09:28.249> transmission<00:09:28.459> it
potential waterborne transmission it
potential waterborne transmission it
looked<00:09:28.970> like<00:09:29.119> it<00:09:29.269> got<00:09:29.299> more<00:09:29.539> harmful<00:09:29.839> in<00:09:29.989> every
looked like it got more harmful in every
looked like it got more harmful in every
case<00:09:30.409> there's<00:09:30.649> a<00:09:30.739> lot<00:09:30.859> of<00:09:31.009> variation<00:09:31.579> but
case there's a lot of variation but
case there's a lot of variation but
something<00:09:33.769> about<00:09:33.859> the<00:09:34.129> environment<00:09:34.249> that
something about the environment that
something about the environment that
people<00:09:35.029> are<00:09:35.179> living<00:09:35.479> in<00:09:35.599> and<00:09:35.809> I<00:09:36.109> think<00:09:36.349> that
people are living in and I think that
people are living in and I think that
the<00:09:36.649> only<00:09:36.769> realistic<00:09:37.369> explanation<00:09:37.609> is<00:09:38.119> that
the only realistic explanation is that
the only realistic explanation is that
it's<00:09:38.419> the<00:09:38.599> the<00:09:38.839> degree<00:09:39.529> of<00:09:39.559> waterborne
it's the the degree of waterborne
it's the the degree of waterborne
transmission<00:09:40.359> favored<00:09:41.359> the<00:09:41.479> harmful<00:09:41.869> strains
transmission favored the harmful strains
transmission favored the harmful strains
in<00:09:42.619> one<00:09:42.829> place<00:09:43.099> in<00:09:43.339> mild<00:09:43.549> strains<00:09:43.819> in<00:09:43.970> another
in one place in mild strains in another
in one place in mild strains in another
so<00:09:44.959> this<00:09:45.049> is<00:09:45.139> very<00:09:45.289> encouraging<00:09:45.439> it<00:09:45.889> suggests
so this is very encouraging it suggests
so this is very encouraging it suggests
that<00:09:46.279> something<00:09:46.909> that<00:09:47.089> we<00:09:47.449> might<00:09:47.659> want<00:09:47.749> to<00:09:47.839> do
that something that we might want to do
that something that we might want to do
anyhow<00:09:48.259> if<00:09:48.349> he<00:09:48.439> had<00:09:48.529> enough<00:09:48.739> money<00:09:48.889> could
anyhow if he had enough money could
anyhow if he had enough money could
actually<00:09:49.459> give<00:09:49.729> us<00:09:49.849> a<00:09:49.939> much<00:09:50.149> bigger<00:09:50.329> bang<00:09:50.479> for
actually give us a much bigger bang for
actually give us a much bigger bang for
the<00:09:50.899> buck<00:09:50.929> it<00:09:51.259> would<00:09:51.349> make<00:09:51.499> these<00:09:51.619> organisms
the buck it would make these organisms
the buck it would make these organisms
evolve<00:09:52.429> to<00:09:52.699> mildness<00:09:52.879> so<00:09:53.839> that<00:09:54.019> even<00:09:54.319> though
evolve to mildness so that even though
evolve to mildness so that even though
people<00:09:54.649> might<00:09:54.919> be<00:09:55.039> getting<00:09:55.249> infected<00:09:55.579> they
people might be getting infected they
people might be getting infected they
could<00:09:55.939> be<00:09:55.999> infected<00:09:56.539> of<00:09:56.629> mild<00:09:56.779> strains<00:09:57.109> that
could be infected of mild strains that
could be infected of mild strains that
wouldn't<00:09:57.499> be<00:09:57.559> causing<00:09:57.889> severe<00:09:58.129> disease<00:09:58.489> but
wouldn't be causing severe disease but
wouldn't be causing severe disease but
there's<00:09:59.209> another<00:09:59.449> really<00:09:59.720> interesting
there's another really interesting
there's another really interesting
aspect<00:10:00.349> of<00:10:00.739> this<00:10:00.859> and<00:10:01.099> this<00:10:01.249> is<00:10:01.459> that<00:10:01.489> if<00:10:01.909> you
aspect of this and this is that if you
aspect of this and this is that if you
could<00:10:02.359> control<00:10:02.779> the<00:10:03.049> evolution<00:10:03.559> of<00:10:03.649> virulence
could control the evolution of virulence
could control the evolution of virulence
evolution<00:10:04.579> of<00:10:04.669> harmfulness<00:10:05.059> then<00:10:05.539> you<00:10:05.689> should
evolution of harmfulness then you should
evolution of harmfulness then you should
be<00:10:06.049> able<00:10:06.169> to<00:10:06.319> control<00:10:06.859> antibiotic<00:10:07.399> resistance
be able to control antibiotic resistance
be able to control antibiotic resistance
and<00:10:07.970> the<00:10:08.089> idea<00:10:08.299> is<00:10:08.389> very<00:10:08.419> simple<00:10:08.869> if<00:10:09.289> you've
and the idea is very simple if you've
and the idea is very simple if you've
got<00:10:09.559> a<00:10:09.589> harmful<00:10:10.039> organism<00:10:10.669> a<00:10:10.759> high<00:10:10.909> proportion
got a harmful organism a high proportion
got a harmful organism a high proportion
the<00:10:11.509> people<00:10:11.749> are<00:10:11.839> going<00:10:11.929> to<00:10:11.989> be<00:10:12.079> symptomatic
the people are going to be symptomatic
the people are going to be symptomatic
high<00:10:12.979> proportions<00:10:13.459> people<00:10:13.699> going<00:10:13.850> to<00:10:13.879> be
high proportions people going to be
high proportions people going to be
going<00:10:14.149> to<00:10:14.779> get<00:10:14.899> antibiotics<00:10:15.169> you<00:10:15.649> got<00:10:15.769> a<00:10:15.799> lot
going to get antibiotics you got a lot
going to get antibiotics you got a lot
of<00:10:16.039> pressure<00:10:16.519> favoring<00:10:17.059> antibiotic
of pressure favoring antibiotic
of pressure favoring antibiotic
resistance<00:10:17.929> so<00:10:18.139> you<00:10:18.169> get<00:10:18.549> increased
resistance so you get increased
resistance so you get increased
virulence<00:10:19.699> leading<00:10:20.600> to<00:10:20.749> the<00:10:20.839> evolution<00:10:21.109> of
virulence leading to the evolution of
virulence leading to the evolution of
increased<00:10:21.889> antibiotic<00:10:22.309> resistance<00:10:22.759> and<00:10:23.679> once
increased antibiotic resistance and once
increased antibiotic resistance and once
you<00:10:24.769> get<00:10:24.889> increased<00:10:25.159> antibiotic<00:10:25.519> resistance
you get increased antibiotic resistance
you get increased antibiotic resistance
the<00:10:25.970> antibiotics<00:10:26.419> are<00:10:26.479> knocking<00:10:26.869> out<00:10:26.959> the
the antibiotics are knocking out the
the antibiotics are knocking out the
harmful<00:10:27.289> strains<00:10:27.499> anymore<00:10:27.979> so<00:10:28.189> you've<00:10:28.309> got<00:10:28.429> a
harmful strains anymore so you've got a
harmful strains anymore so you've got a
higher<00:10:28.819> level<00:10:29.119> of<00:10:29.299> Maryland<00:10:29.600> so<00:10:29.659> you<00:10:29.749> get<00:10:29.869> this
higher level of Maryland so you get this
higher level of Maryland so you get this
vicious<00:10:30.199> cycle<00:10:30.529> the<00:10:31.100> goal<00:10:31.279> is<00:10:31.459> to<00:10:31.489> turn<00:10:31.699> this
vicious cycle the goal is to turn this
vicious cycle the goal is to turn this
around<00:10:32.059> if<00:10:32.479> you<00:10:32.959> could<00:10:33.109> cause<00:10:33.679> an
around if you could cause an
around if you could cause an
evolutionary<00:10:34.399> decrease<00:10:34.699> in<00:10:34.909> virulence<00:10:35.600> by
evolutionary decrease in virulence by
evolutionary decrease in virulence by
cleaning<00:10:36.079> up<00:10:36.169> the<00:10:36.289> water<00:10:36.409> supply<00:10:36.649> you<00:10:37.249> should
cleaning up the water supply you should
cleaning up the water supply you should
be<00:10:37.549> able<00:10:37.639> to<00:10:37.759> get<00:10:37.970> an<00:10:38.209> evolutionary<00:10:38.929> decrease
be able to get an evolutionary decrease
be able to get an evolutionary decrease
in<00:10:39.709> antibiotic<00:10:40.609> resistance<00:10:41.089> so<00:10:41.449> we<00:10:41.479> can<00:10:41.629> go<00:10:41.720> to
in antibiotic resistance so we can go to
in antibiotic resistance so we can go to
the<00:10:41.929> same<00:10:42.109> countries<00:10:42.499> and<00:10:42.679> look<00:10:42.799> and<00:10:42.979> see<00:10:43.100> did
the same countries and look and see did
the same countries and look and see did
Chile<00:10:43.909> avoid<00:10:44.149> the<00:10:44.329> problem<00:10:44.720> of<00:10:44.749> antibiotic
Chile avoid the problem of antibiotic
Chile avoid the problem of antibiotic
resistance<00:10:46.039> whereas<00:10:46.729> did<00:10:47.029> Ecuador<00:10:47.479> actually
resistance whereas did Ecuador actually
resistance whereas did Ecuador actually
have<00:10:48.139> the<00:10:48.379> beginnings<00:10:48.739> of<00:10:48.799> the<00:10:48.889> problem<00:10:49.249> if<00:10:49.759> we
have the beginnings of the problem if we
have the beginnings of the problem if we
look<00:10:49.999> in<00:10:50.089> the<00:10:50.179> beginning<00:10:50.299> of<00:10:50.539> 1990s<00:10:51.169> we<00:10:51.350> see
look in the beginning of 1990s we see
look in the beginning of 1990s we see
again<00:10:52.249> a<00:10:52.309> lot<00:10:52.549> of<00:10:52.699> variation<00:10:53.299> in<00:10:53.629> this<00:10:54.079> case<00:10:54.139> on
again a lot of variation in this case on
again a lot of variation in this case on
the<00:10:54.709> y-axis<00:10:54.829> we've<00:10:55.369> just<00:10:55.579> got<00:10:55.699> a<00:10:55.729> measure<00:10:55.999> of
the y-axis we've just got a measure of
the y-axis we've just got a measure of
antibiotic<00:10:56.720> sensitivity<00:10:57.259> and<00:10:58.039> I<00:10:58.069> won't<00:10:58.249> go
antibiotic sensitivity and I won't go
antibiotic sensitivity and I won't go
into<00:10:58.519> that<00:10:58.639> but<00:10:58.970> we've<00:10:59.659> got<00:10:59.779> a<00:10:59.809> lot<00:10:59.899> of
into that but we've got a lot of
into that but we've got a lot of
variation<00:11:00.559> in<00:11:00.679> antibiotic<00:11:00.889> sensitivity<00:11:01.220> and
variation in antibiotic sensitivity and
variation in antibiotic sensitivity and
Chile<00:11:01.939> pruin<00:11:02.239> active<00:11:02.449> our<00:11:02.539> know<00:11:02.659> trend<00:11:02.989> across
Chile pruin active our know trend across
Chile pruin active our know trend across
the<00:11:03.499> years<00:11:03.739> but<00:11:04.099> if<00:11:04.189> we<00:11:04.249> look<00:11:04.399> at<00:11:04.519> the<00:11:04.609> end<00:11:04.789> of
the years but if we look at the end of
the years but if we look at the end of
the<00:11:05.029> 1990s<00:11:05.689> just<00:11:06.409> half<00:11:07.039> a<00:11:07.159> decade<00:11:07.429> later<00:11:07.669> we
the 1990s just half a decade later we
the 1990s just half a decade later we
see<00:11:08.569> that<00:11:08.989> in<00:11:09.289> Ecuador<00:11:09.709> they<00:11:09.859> started<00:11:10.189> having
see that in Ecuador they started having
see that in Ecuador they started having
a<00:11:10.519> resistance<00:11:10.970> problem<00:11:11.209> antibiotic
a resistance problem antibiotic
a resistance problem antibiotic
sensitivity<00:11:12.139> was<00:11:12.649> going<00:11:12.889> down<00:11:13.069> and<00:11:13.369> in<00:11:13.759> Chile
sensitivity was going down and in Chile
sensitivity was going down and in Chile
you<00:11:14.419> still<00:11:14.659> had<00:11:14.869> antibiotic<00:11:15.319> sensitivity<00:11:15.409> so
you still had antibiotic sensitivity so
you still had antibiotic sensitivity so
it<00:11:16.100> looks<00:11:16.220> like<00:11:16.279> Chile<00:11:16.549> dodged
it looks like Chile dodged
it looks like Chile dodged
two<00:11:17.570> bullets<00:11:17.900> they<00:11:18.140> got<00:11:18.320> the<00:11:18.680> organism
two bullets they got the organism
two bullets they got the organism
involved<00:11:19.430> the<00:11:19.520> mildness<00:11:19.910> and<00:11:20.120> they<00:11:20.660> got<00:11:20.840> no
involved the mildness and they got no
involved the mildness and they got no
development<00:11:22.160> of<00:11:22.220> antibiotic<00:11:22.640> resistance<00:11:23.120> now
development of antibiotic resistance now
development of antibiotic resistance now
these<00:11:23.840> ideas<00:11:24.230> should<00:11:24.410> apply<00:11:24.650> across<00:11:25.490> the
these ideas should apply across the
these ideas should apply across the
board<00:11:25.730> as<00:11:26.210> long<00:11:26.420> as<00:11:26.510> you<00:11:26.600> can<00:11:26.690> figure<00:11:26.810> out<00:11:26.960> why
board as long as you can figure out why
board as long as you can figure out why
some<00:11:27.530> organisms<00:11:28.040> evolve<00:11:28.280> to<00:11:28.520> virulence<00:11:28.910> and<00:11:29.150> I
some organisms evolve to virulence and I
some organisms evolve to virulence and I
want<00:11:29.870> to<00:11:29.930> give<00:11:30.020> you<00:11:30.110> just<00:11:30.230> one<00:11:30.410> more<00:11:30.530> example
want to give you just one more example
want to give you just one more example
because<00:11:31.070> we've<00:11:31.190> talked<00:11:31.370> a<00:11:31.400> little<00:11:31.520> bit<00:11:31.670> about
because we've talked a little bit about
because we've talked a little bit about
malaria<00:11:32.510> in<00:11:32.840> the<00:11:33.140> example<00:11:33.560> I<00:11:33.770> want<00:11:34.370> to<00:11:34.460> deal
malaria in the example I want to deal
malaria in the example I want to deal
with<00:11:34.640> this<00:11:35.800> or<00:11:36.800> the<00:11:36.950> idea<00:11:37.220> I<00:11:37.250> wanted<00:11:37.460> to<00:11:37.580> deal
with this or the idea I wanted to deal
with this or the idea I wanted to deal
with<00:11:38.120> a<00:11:38.150> question<00:11:38.600> is<00:11:38.720> what<00:11:39.140> can<00:11:39.290> we<00:11:39.380> do<00:11:39.620> to<00:11:40.160> try
with a question is what can we do to try
with a question is what can we do to try
to<00:11:40.400> get<00:11:40.670> the<00:11:40.970> malaria<00:11:41.360> organism<00:11:41.810> evolve<00:11:41.990> to
to get the malaria organism evolve to
to get the malaria organism evolve to
mildness<00:11:42.290> now<00:11:43.040> malaria<00:11:43.490> is<00:11:43.550> transmitted<00:11:44.000> by
mildness now malaria is transmitted by
mildness now malaria is transmitted by
mosquito<00:11:44.450> and<00:11:44.750> normally<00:11:45.170> if<00:11:45.320> you're<00:11:45.580> infected
mosquito and normally if you're infected
mosquito and normally if you're infected
with<00:11:47.000> malaria<00:11:47.150> and<00:11:47.510> you're<00:11:47.660> feeling<00:11:47.930> sick<00:11:48.110> it
with malaria and you're feeling sick it
with malaria and you're feeling sick it
makes<00:11:48.410> it<00:11:48.560> even<00:11:48.680> easier<00:11:48.980> for<00:11:49.130> the<00:11:49.280> mosquito<00:11:49.610> to
makes it even easier for the mosquito to
makes it even easier for the mosquito to
to<00:11:50.330> bite<00:11:50.510> you<00:11:50.690> and<00:11:50.720> you<00:11:50.870> can<00:11:51.080> show<00:11:51.290> just<00:11:51.620> by
to bite you and you can show just by
to bite you and you can show just by
looking<00:11:52.460> at<00:11:52.520> data<00:11:52.640> and<00:11:52.880> literature<00:11:53.210> that
looking at data and literature that
looking at data and literature that
vector<00:11:53.960> borne<00:11:54.320> diseases<00:11:54.620> are<00:11:54.830> more<00:11:54.950> harmful
vector borne diseases are more harmful
vector borne diseases are more harmful
than<00:11:55.490> non<00:11:55.640> vector<00:11:56.000> borne<00:11:56.180> diseases<00:11:57.490> but<00:11:58.490> I
than non vector borne diseases but I
than non vector borne diseases but I
think<00:11:59.240> there's<00:11:59.390> a<00:11:59.450> really<00:12:00.380> fascinating
think there's a really fascinating
think there's a really fascinating
example<00:12:01.550> of<00:12:01.700> what<00:12:02.450> one<00:12:02.600> can<00:12:02.840> do
example of what one can do
example of what one can do
experimentally<00:12:03.770> to<00:12:04.370> try<00:12:04.550> to<00:12:04.610> actually
experimentally to try to actually
experimentally to try to actually
demonstrate<00:12:05.090> this<00:12:05.540> in<00:12:05.720> the<00:12:05.750> case<00:12:05.930> of
demonstrate this in the case of
demonstrate this in the case of
waterborne<00:12:06.500> transmission<00:12:06.740> we'd<00:12:07.130> like<00:12:07.220> to
waterborne transmission we'd like to
waterborne transmission we'd like to
clean<00:12:07.520> up<00:12:07.640> the<00:12:07.730> water<00:12:07.910> supplies<00:12:08.210> see<00:12:08.690> whether
clean up the water supplies see whether
clean up the water supplies see whether
or<00:12:08.990> not<00:12:09.020> we<00:12:09.200> can<00:12:09.290> get<00:12:09.410> those<00:12:09.500> organisms<00:12:09.860> to
or not we can get those organisms to
or not we can get those organisms to
evolve<00:12:10.220> towards<00:12:10.520> mildness<00:12:10.940> in<00:12:11.270> the<00:12:11.870> case<00:12:12.080> of
evolve towards mildness in the case of
evolve towards mildness in the case of
malaria<00:12:13.040> what<00:12:13.550> we'd<00:12:13.670> like<00:12:13.790> to<00:12:13.850> do<00:12:14.120> is
malaria what we'd like to do is
malaria what we'd like to do is
mosquito-proof<00:12:16.460> houses<00:12:17.140> and<00:12:18.140> and<00:12:18.410> the<00:12:18.530> logic
mosquito-proof houses and and the logic
mosquito-proof houses and and the logic
is<00:12:18.980> a<00:12:19.010> little<00:12:19.190> more<00:12:19.280> subtle<00:12:19.460> here<00:12:19.760> if<00:12:20.060> your
is a little more subtle here if your
is a little more subtle here if your
mosquito-proof<00:12:20.660> houses<00:12:21.230> when<00:12:21.500> people<00:12:21.800> get
mosquito-proof houses when people get
mosquito-proof houses when people get
sick<00:12:22.160> they're<00:12:22.400> sitting<00:12:22.670> in<00:12:22.760> bed<00:12:22.940> or<00:12:23.210> the<00:12:23.360> skete
sick they're sitting in bed or the skete
sick they're sitting in bed or the skete
above<00:12:23.750> hospitals<00:12:24.260> they're<00:12:24.410> sitting<00:12:24.650> in<00:12:24.740> a
above hospitals they're sitting in a
above hospitals they're sitting in a
hospital<00:12:25.220> bed<00:12:25.370> and<00:12:25.550> the<00:12:26.450> mosquitoes<00:12:26.810> can't
hospital bed and the mosquitoes can't
hospital bed and the mosquitoes can't
get<00:12:27.140> to<00:12:27.260> them<00:12:27.410> so<00:12:27.860> if<00:12:28.010> you're<00:12:28.160> a<00:12:28.370> harmful
get to them so if you're a harmful
get to them so if you're a harmful
variant<00:12:29.300> in<00:12:29.510> a<00:12:29.630> place<00:12:29.870> where<00:12:30.110> you've<00:12:30.200> got
variant in a place where you've got
variant in a place where you've got
mosquito<00:12:31.160> proof<00:12:31.400> housing<00:12:31.850> then<00:12:32.570> you're<00:12:32.870> a
mosquito proof housing then you're a
mosquito proof housing then you're a
loser
loser
loser
the<00:12:34.790> only<00:12:34.940> pathogen<00:12:35.780> to<00:12:35.900> get<00:12:36.020> transmitted<00:12:36.500> are
the only pathogen to get transmitted are
the only pathogen to get transmitted are
the<00:12:36.650> ones<00:12:36.800> that<00:12:36.920> are<00:12:37.100> detecting<00:12:37.460> people<00:12:37.670> to
the ones that are detecting people to
the ones that are detecting people to
feel<00:12:37.910> healthy<00:12:38.180> enough<00:12:38.330> to<00:12:38.450> walk<00:12:38.600> outside<00:12:38.990> and
feel healthy enough to walk outside and
feel healthy enough to walk outside and
get<00:12:39.620> mosquito<00:12:40.010> bites<00:12:40.390> so<00:12:41.390> if<00:12:41.720> you<00:12:41.930> were<00:12:42.050> to
get mosquito bites so if you were to
get mosquito bites so if you were to
mosquito-proof<00:12:42.740> houses<00:12:43.280> you<00:12:43.400> should<00:12:43.580> be<00:12:43.670> able
mosquito-proof houses you should be able
mosquito-proof houses you should be able
to<00:12:43.850> get<00:12:43.970> these<00:12:44.150> organisms<00:12:44.450> to<00:12:44.660> evolve<00:12:44.720> to
to get these organisms to evolve to
to get these organisms to evolve to
mildness<00:12:45.200> and<00:12:45.560> there's<00:12:45.800> a<00:12:45.860> really<00:12:46.190> wonderful
mildness and there's a really wonderful
mildness and there's a really wonderful
experiment<00:12:47.750> that<00:12:47.960> was<00:12:48.080> done<00:12:48.290> that<00:12:48.410> suggest
experiment that was done that suggest
experiment that was done that suggest
that<00:12:48.920> we<00:12:49.310> really<00:12:49.610> should<00:12:49.760> go<00:12:49.910> ahead<00:12:50.030> and<00:12:50.300> do
that we really should go ahead and do
that we really should go ahead and do
this<00:12:50.630> and<00:12:50.930> that<00:12:51.260> experiment<00:12:51.890> was<00:12:52.040> done<00:12:52.250> in
this and that experiment was done in
this and that experiment was done in
northern<00:12:54.110> Alabama<00:12:54.260> just<00:12:54.800> to<00:12:54.890> give<00:12:55.010> you<00:12:55.130> a
northern Alabama just to give you a
northern Alabama just to give you a
little<00:12:55.310> perspective<00:12:55.610> and<00:12:55.970> this<00:12:56.030> I've<00:12:56.210> given
little perspective and this I've given
little perspective and this I've given
you<00:12:56.480> a<00:12:56.540> star<00:12:56.870> at<00:12:57.230> the<00:12:57.310> intellectual<00:12:58.310> center<00:12:58.640> of
you a star at the intellectual center of
you a star at the intellectual center of
the<00:12:59.810> United<00:12:59.960> States<00:13:00.140> which<00:13:00.830> is<00:13:00.860> right<00:13:01.520> there
the United States which is right there
the United States which is right there
in<00:13:01.880> Louisville<00:13:02.360> Kentucky<00:13:02.990> and<00:13:03.580> this<00:13:04.580> really
in Louisville Kentucky and this really
in Louisville Kentucky and this really
cool<00:13:05.510> experiment<00:13:06.140> was<00:13:06.290> done<00:13:06.470> about<00:13:07.040> 200<00:13:07.460> miles
cool experiment was done about 200 miles
cool experiment was done about 200 miles
south<00:13:07.880> of<00:13:08.300> there<00:13:08.480> in<00:13:08.660> northern<00:13:08.960> Alabama<00:13:09.410> by
south of there in northern Alabama by
south of there in northern Alabama by
the<00:13:09.620> Tennessee<00:13:10.010> Valley<00:13:10.130> Authority<00:13:10.310> they<00:13:11.180> had
the Tennessee Valley Authority they had
the Tennessee Valley Authority they had
dammed<00:13:12.470> up<00:13:12.680> the<00:13:12.740> Tennessee<00:13:13.190> River<00:13:13.340> that
dammed up the Tennessee River that
dammed up the Tennessee River that
caused<00:13:14.180> the<00:13:14.810> water<00:13:14.960> to<00:13:15.110> back<00:13:15.350> up<00:13:15.530> these
caused the water to back up these
caused the water to back up these
electric<00:13:16.250> hydroelectric<00:13:17.120> power<00:13:17.330> and<00:13:17.650> when
electric hydroelectric power and when
electric hydroelectric power and when
you<00:13:18.740> get<00:13:18.860> stagnant<00:13:19.490> water<00:13:19.640> you<00:13:19.850> got
you get stagnant water you got
you get stagnant water you got
mosquitoes<00:13:20.420> they<00:13:20.630> found<00:13:20.870> in<00:13:21.050> the<00:13:21.140> in<00:13:21.410> the<00:13:21.620> late
mosquitoes they found in the in the late
mosquitoes they found in the in the late
30s<00:13:22.280> ten<00:13:22.820> years<00:13:22.970> after<00:13:23.120> they'd<00:13:23.390> made<00:13:23.570> these
30s ten years after they'd made these
30s ten years after they'd made these
dams<00:13:24.020> that<00:13:24.740> the<00:13:26.110> people<00:13:27.110> in<00:13:27.260> northern<00:13:27.590> Alabama
dams that the people in northern Alabama
dams that the people in northern Alabama
were<00:13:29.180> infected<00:13:29.839> with<00:13:30.050> malaria<00:13:30.199> about<00:13:30.560> a<00:13:30.589> third
were infected with malaria about a third
were infected with malaria about a third
of<00:13:31.069> the<00:13:31.130> third<00:13:31.279> to<00:13:31.459> half<00:13:31.610> of<00:13:31.819> them<00:13:31.910> are
of the third to half of them are
of the third to half of them are
infected<00:13:32.420> with<00:13:32.449> malaria<00:13:32.660> guys<00:13:33.500> it<00:13:33.649> shows<00:13:33.860> the
infected with malaria guys it shows the
infected with malaria guys it shows the
positions<00:13:34.940> of<00:13:35.029> some<00:13:35.209> of<00:13:35.329> these<00:13:35.420> dams<00:13:36.430> okay<00:13:37.430> so
positions of some of these dams okay so
positions of some of these dams okay so
the<00:13:38.509> Tennessee<00:13:38.959> Valley<00:13:39.139> Authority<00:13:39.259> was<00:13:39.709> a
the Tennessee Valley Authority was a
the Tennessee Valley Authority was a
little<00:13:40.009> bit<00:13:40.100> of<00:13:40.160> a<00:13:40.190> bind
little bit of a bind
little bit of a bind
there<00:13:40.880> wasn't<00:13:41.089> DDT<00:13:41.990> there<00:13:42.649> wasn't<00:13:43.040> chloric
there wasn't DDT there wasn't chloric
there wasn't DDT there wasn't chloric
winds<00:13:43.579> what<00:13:43.910> did<00:13:44.000> they<00:13:44.120> do<00:13:44.180> well<00:13:44.509> they<00:13:44.630> decided
winds what did they do well they decided
winds what did they do well they decided
a<00:13:45.019> mosquito<00:13:45.380> poof<00:13:45.500> every<00:13:45.740> house<00:13:45.920> northern
a mosquito poof every house northern
a mosquito poof every house northern
Alabama<00:13:46.910> so<00:13:47.600> they<00:13:48.050> did<00:13:48.230> they<00:13:48.350> divided
Alabama so they did they divided
Alabama so they did they divided
northern<00:13:49.009> Alabama<00:13:49.370> in<00:13:49.610> 11<00:13:49.910> zones<00:13:50.180> and<00:13:50.540> within
northern Alabama in 11 zones and within
northern Alabama in 11 zones and within
three<00:13:51.440> years<00:13:51.620> about<00:13:52.370> $100<00:13:52.970> per<00:13:53.000> house<00:13:53.269> they
three years about $100 per house they
three years about $100 per house they
mesquite<00:13:53.810> approved<00:13:54.079> every<00:13:54.319> house<00:13:54.500> and<00:13:54.800> these
mesquite approved every house and these
mesquite approved every house and these
are<00:13:55.399> the<00:13:55.490> data<00:13:55.639> every<00:13:56.420> row<00:13:57.019> across<00:13:57.290> here
are the data every row across here
are the data every row across here
represents<00:13:58.610> one<00:13:58.970> of<00:13:59.000> those<00:13:59.269> 11<00:13:59.569> zones<00:13:59.930> and<00:14:00.110> the
represents one of those 11 zones and the
represents one of those 11 zones and the
asterisks<00:14:00.769> represent<00:14:00.829> the<00:14:01.370> time<00:14:01.639> at<00:14:02.180> which
asterisks represent the time at which
asterisks represent the time at which
the<00:14:02.839> mosquito<00:14:03.470> proofing<00:14:03.740> was<00:14:03.889> complete<00:14:04.220> and
the mosquito proofing was complete and
the mosquito proofing was complete and
so<00:14:04.670> what<00:14:04.819> you<00:14:04.970> can<00:14:05.000> see<00:14:05.389> is<00:14:05.630> that<00:14:06.079> just<00:14:06.980> the
so what you can see is that just the
so what you can see is that just the
mosquito<00:14:07.490> proofing<00:14:07.790> housing<00:14:08.300> and<00:14:08.449> nothing
mosquito proofing housing and nothing
mosquito proofing housing and nothing
else<00:14:08.839> caused<00:14:09.440> the<00:14:09.589> eradication<00:14:10.040> of<00:14:10.220> malaria
else caused the eradication of malaria
else caused the eradication of malaria
and<00:14:10.819> this<00:14:11.240> was<00:14:11.360> incidentally<00:14:11.870> published<00:14:12.319> in
and this was incidentally published in
and this was incidentally published in
1949<00:14:12.980> in<00:14:13.339> the<00:14:13.459> leading<00:14:13.759> textbook<00:14:14.180> of<00:14:14.300> malaria
1949 in the leading textbook of malaria
1949 in the leading textbook of malaria
called<00:14:15.350> Boyd's<00:14:15.589> malaria<00:14:16.009> ology<00:14:16.370> but<00:14:16.730> almost
called Boyd's malaria ology but almost
called Boyd's malaria ology but almost
no<00:14:17.180> malaria<00:14:17.540> experts<00:14:17.959> even<00:14:18.259> though<00:14:18.470> it<00:14:18.560> exists
no malaria experts even though it exists
no malaria experts even though it exists
this<00:14:19.490> is<00:14:19.550> important<00:14:20.149> because<00:14:20.269> it<00:14:20.690> tells<00:14:20.810> us
this is important because it tells us
this is important because it tells us
that<00:14:21.110> if<00:14:21.500> you<00:14:21.800> have<00:14:22.009> moderate<00:14:22.399> biting
that if you have moderate biting
that if you have moderate biting
densities<00:14:23.209> you<00:14:23.240> can<00:14:23.420> eradicate<00:14:23.569> malaria<00:14:24.019> by
densities you can eradicate malaria by
densities you can eradicate malaria by
mosquito<00:14:24.709> proofing<00:14:25.040> houses<00:14:25.430> now<00:14:25.610> I<00:14:25.819> would
mosquito proofing houses now I would
mosquito proofing houses now I would
suggest<00:14:26.360> that<00:14:26.720> you<00:14:27.019> could<00:14:27.620> do<00:14:27.740> this<00:14:27.889> in<00:14:28.040> a<00:14:28.100> lot
suggest that you could do this in a lot
suggest that you could do this in a lot
of<00:14:28.220> places<00:14:28.459> like<00:14:28.790> you<00:14:29.209> know<00:14:29.329> sub<00:14:29.600> tear<00:14:29.839> and
of places like you know sub tear and
of places like you know sub tear and
just<00:14:30.589> as<00:14:30.769> you<00:14:31.399> get<00:14:31.579> into<00:14:31.910> the<00:14:32.089> malaria<00:14:32.480> zone
just as you get into the malaria zone
just as you get into the malaria zone
it's<00:14:33.170> up<00:14:33.319> to<00:14:33.439> in<00:14:33.529> Africa<00:14:33.889> but<00:14:34.040> as<00:14:34.160> you<00:14:34.250> move<00:14:34.370> to
it's up to in Africa but as you move to
it's up to in Africa but as you move to
really<00:14:34.970> intense<00:14:35.389> biting<00:14:35.839> right<00:14:36.290> areas<00:14:36.740> like
really intense biting right areas like
really intense biting right areas like
Nigeria<00:14:37.519> you're<00:14:37.970> probably<00:14:38.149> not<00:14:38.360> certainly
Nigeria you're probably not certainly
Nigeria you're probably not certainly
not<00:14:38.959> going<00:14:39.050> to<00:14:39.110> Radek<00:14:39.410> eight<00:14:39.529> but<00:14:39.800> that's<00:14:40.069> when
not going to Radek eight but that's when
not going to Radek eight but that's when
you<00:14:40.430> should<00:14:40.759> be<00:14:40.790> favoring<00:14:41.779> evolution<00:14:42.319> towards
you should be favoring evolution towards
you should be favoring evolution towards
mildness<00:14:42.860> so<00:14:43.220> to<00:14:43.279> me<00:14:43.519> it's<00:14:43.699> just<00:14:43.790> an
mildness so to me it's just an
mildness so to me it's just an
experiment<00:14:45.139> that's<00:14:45.470> waiting<00:14:45.649> to<00:14:45.769> happen<00:14:46.160> if
experiment that's waiting to happen if
experiment that's waiting to happen if
it<00:14:46.370> confirms<00:14:46.880> the<00:14:47.149> prediction<00:14:47.600> then<00:14:48.050> we
it confirms the prediction then we
it confirms the prediction then we
should<00:14:48.410> be<00:14:48.589> you<00:14:48.740> should<00:14:48.769> have<00:14:49.100> a<00:14:49.160> very
should be you should have a very
should be you should have a very
powerful<00:14:49.819> tool<00:14:50.300> in<00:14:50.689> a<00:14:50.990> way<00:14:51.079> much<00:14:51.290> more
powerful tool in a way much more
powerful tool in a way much more
powerful<00:14:51.920> than<00:14:51.980> the<00:14:52.040> kind<00:14:52.279> of<00:14:52.399> tools<00:14:52.579> we're
powerful than the kind of tools we're
powerful than the kind of tools we're
looking<00:14:53.060> at<00:14:53.180> because<00:14:53.540> most<00:14:54.019> of<00:14:54.199> what's<00:14:54.350> being
looking at because most of what's being
looking at because most of what's being
done<00:14:54.740> today<00:14:54.920> is<00:14:55.160> to<00:14:55.550> rely<00:14:55.790> on<00:14:55.819> things<00:14:56.089> like
done today is to rely on things like
done today is to rely on things like
anti<00:14:57.110> malarial<00:14:57.470> drugs<00:14:57.500> and<00:14:58.009> we<00:14:58.130> know<00:14:58.310> that
anti malarial drugs and we know that
anti malarial drugs and we know that
although<00:14:59.120> it's<00:14:59.360> great<00:14:59.540> to<00:14:59.750> make<00:14:59.870> those<00:15:00.079> anti
although it's great to make those anti
although it's great to make those anti
malarial<00:15:00.800> drugs<00:15:00.860> available<00:15:01.220> in<00:15:01.730> really<00:15:02.149> low
malarial drugs available in really low
malarial drugs available in really low
cost<00:15:02.540> and<00:15:02.779> high<00:15:03.189> high<00:15:04.329> frequency<00:15:05.329> we<00:15:05.899> know
cost and high high frequency we know
cost and high high frequency we know
that<00:15:06.620> with<00:15:07.399> when<00:15:07.730> you<00:15:07.819> make<00:15:08.000> no<00:15:08.149> highly
that with when you make no highly
that with when you make no highly
available<00:15:08.569> you're<00:15:08.899> going<00:15:09.019> to<00:15:09.079> get<00:15:09.170> resistance
available you're going to get resistance
available you're going to get resistance
to<00:15:09.709> those<00:15:09.829> drugs<00:15:10.100> and<00:15:10.399> so<00:15:10.579> it's<00:15:10.699> a<00:15:10.759> short-term
to those drugs and so it's a short-term
to those drugs and so it's a short-term
solution<00:15:11.360> this<00:15:11.839> is<00:15:11.899> this<00:15:12.110> long-term<00:15:12.410> solution
solution this is this long-term solution
solution this is this long-term solution
what<00:15:13.250> I'm<00:15:13.339> suggesting<00:15:13.519> here<00:15:14.120> is<00:15:14.269> we<00:15:14.810> could<00:15:14.990> get
what I'm suggesting here is we could get
what I'm suggesting here is we could get
evolution<00:15:15.980> working<00:15:16.490> in<00:15:16.550> the<00:15:16.610> direction<00:15:16.970> we
evolution working in the direction we
evolution working in the direction we
want<00:15:17.569> it<00:15:18.050> to<00:15:18.259> go<00:15:18.410> rather<00:15:18.769> than<00:15:18.920> always<00:15:19.160> having
want it to go rather than always having
want it to go rather than always having
to<00:15:19.639> battle<00:15:19.819> evolution<00:15:20.750> is<00:15:20.839> a<00:15:20.870> problem<00:15:21.410> that
to battle evolution is a problem that
to battle evolution is a problem that
stymies<00:15:22.100> our<00:15:22.250> efforts<00:15:22.579> to<00:15:23.060> control<00:15:23.449> the
stymies our efforts to control the
stymies our efforts to control the
pathogen<00:15:24.050> for<00:15:24.199> example<00:15:24.620> with<00:15:24.740> anti<00:15:25.040> malarial
pathogen for example with anti malarial
pathogen for example with anti malarial
drugs<00:15:25.569> so<00:15:26.569> this<00:15:27.110> table<00:15:27.829> I've<00:15:28.279> given<00:15:28.610> just<00:15:28.819> to
drugs so this table I've given just to
drugs so this table I've given just to
emphasize<00:15:29.389> that<00:15:29.600> I've<00:15:29.689> only<00:15:29.839> talked<00:15:30.139> about
emphasize that I've only talked about
emphasize that I've only talked about
two<00:15:30.850> examples<00:15:31.850> but<00:15:32.240> as<00:15:32.720> I<00:15:32.899> said<00:15:32.959> earlier<00:15:33.079> this
two examples but as I said earlier this
two examples but as I said earlier this
kind<00:15:34.250> of<00:15:34.339> logic<00:15:34.519> applies<00:15:34.910> across<00:15:35.180> the<00:15:35.300> board
kind of logic applies across the board
kind of logic applies across the board
for<00:15:35.839> infectious<00:15:36.259> diseases<00:15:36.589> and<00:15:36.829> it<00:15:36.949> ought<00:15:37.069> to
for infectious diseases and it ought to
for infectious diseases and it ought to
because<00:15:38.000> when<00:15:38.449> we're<00:15:38.600> dealing<00:15:38.689> with
because when we're dealing with
because when we're dealing with
infectious<00:15:39.170> diseases<00:15:39.829> we're<00:15:40.100> dealing<00:15:40.309> with
infectious diseases we're dealing with
infectious diseases we're dealing with
living<00:15:40.579> systems<00:15:41.059> we're<00:15:41.209> dealing<00:15:41.449> with<00:15:41.480> living
living systems we're dealing with living
living systems we're dealing with living
we're<00:15:42.940> dealing<00:15:43.090> with<00:15:43.300> systems<00:15:44.050> that<00:15:44.590> evolve
we're dealing with systems that evolve
we're dealing with systems that evolve
and<00:15:45.400> so<00:15:45.910> if<00:15:46.150> you<00:15:46.510> do<00:15:46.630> something<00:15:46.900> those<00:15:47.200> systems
and so if you do something those systems
and so if you do something those systems
they're<00:15:47.770> going<00:15:47.950> to<00:15:48.040> evolve<00:15:48.160> one<00:15:48.400> way<00:15:48.520> or<00:15:48.580> other
they're going to evolve one way or other
they're going to evolve one way or other
and<00:15:49.120> all<00:15:49.240> I'm<00:15:49.360> saying<00:15:49.660> is<00:15:50.080> that<00:15:50.380> we<00:15:50.680> need<00:15:50.860> to
and all I'm saying is that we need to
and all I'm saying is that we need to
figure<00:15:51.160> out<00:15:51.310> how<00:15:51.610> they'll<00:15:51.820> evolve<00:15:52.120> so<00:15:52.390> that<00:15:52.540> we
figure out how they'll evolve so that we
figure out how they'll evolve so that we
need<00:15:52.840> to<00:15:52.990> adjust<00:15:53.260> our<00:15:53.560> interventions<00:15:54.310> to<00:15:54.460> get
need to adjust our interventions to get
need to adjust our interventions to get
the<00:15:54.700> most<00:15:54.850> bang<00:15:55.150> for<00:15:55.750> the<00:15:55.870> intervention<00:15:56.230> buck
the most bang for the intervention buck
the most bang for the intervention buck
so<00:15:57.160> that<00:15:57.310> we<00:15:57.430> can<00:15:57.610> get<00:15:57.790> these<00:15:58.270> organisms<00:15:58.630> to
so that we can get these organisms to
so that we can get these organisms to
evolve<00:15:59.230> in<00:15:59.380> the<00:15:59.440> direction<00:15:59.770> we<00:15:59.860> want<00:15:59.980> them<00:16:00.190> to
evolve in the direction we want them to
evolve in the direction we want them to
go<00:16:00.430> so<00:16:00.940> I<00:16:01.000> don't<00:16:01.030> really<00:16:01.300> have<00:16:01.450> time<00:16:01.570> to<00:16:01.630> talk
go so I don't really have time to talk
go so I don't really have time to talk
about<00:16:01.930> those<00:16:02.320> things<00:16:02.650> but<00:16:03.130> I<00:16:03.190> did<00:16:03.370> want<00:16:03.550> to<00:16:03.580> put
about those things but I did want to put
about those things but I did want to put
them<00:16:03.880> up<00:16:04.000> there<00:16:04.360> just<00:16:04.630> to<00:16:04.750> give<00:16:05.110> you<00:16:05.200> a<00:16:05.230> sense
them up there just to give you a sense
them up there just to give you a sense
that<00:16:05.710> there<00:16:05.890> really<00:16:06.010> are<00:16:06.310> solutions<00:16:06.760> to
that there really are solutions to
that there really are solutions to
controlling<00:16:08.500> the<00:16:08.650> evolution<00:16:09.160> of<00:16:09.280> harmfulness
controlling the evolution of harmfulness
controlling the evolution of harmfulness
of<00:16:10.150> some<00:16:10.330> of<00:16:10.450> the<00:16:10.510> nasty<00:16:10.660> pathogens<00:16:11.040> that<00:16:12.040> were
of some of the nasty pathogens that were
of some of the nasty pathogens that were
confronted<00:16:13.180> with<00:16:15.000> and<00:16:16.000> and<00:16:16.540> this<00:16:16.690> this<00:16:17.200> links
confronted with and and this this links
confronted with and and this this links
up<00:16:17.590> with<00:16:17.650> a<00:16:17.830> lot<00:16:17.980> of<00:16:18.010> the<00:16:18.160> other<00:16:18.280> ideas<00:16:18.850> have
up with a lot of the other ideas have
up with a lot of the other ideas have
been<00:16:19.090> talked<00:16:19.360> about<00:16:19.540> so<00:16:20.290> for<00:16:20.470> example<00:16:22.740> earlier
been talked about so for example earlier
been talked about so for example earlier
today<00:16:24.040> we<00:16:24.190> you<00:16:24.580> know<00:16:24.640> there's<00:16:24.820> a<00:16:24.880> discussion
today we you know there's a discussion
today we you know there's a discussion
of<00:16:25.660> how<00:16:26.260> do<00:16:26.320> you<00:16:26.410> really<00:16:26.650> lower<00:16:27.660> sexual
of how do you really lower sexual
of how do you really lower sexual
transmission<00:16:29.110> of<00:16:29.730> HIV<00:16:30.730> what<00:16:31.450> this<00:16:31.900> emphasizes
transmission of HIV what this emphasizes
transmission of HIV what this emphasizes
is<00:16:32.770> that<00:16:33.010> we<00:16:33.550> need<00:16:33.700> to<00:16:33.790> figure<00:16:33.940> out<00:16:34.180> how<00:16:34.450> to
is that we need to figure out how to
is that we need to figure out how to
lower<00:16:34.690> it<00:16:34.840> maybe<00:16:35.200> get<00:16:35.380> lowered<00:16:35.620> if<00:16:35.740> we<00:16:35.860> alter
lower it maybe get lowered if we alter
lower it maybe get lowered if we alter
the<00:16:36.340> economy<00:16:36.910> of<00:16:37.000> the<00:16:37.120> area<00:16:37.420> it<00:16:37.510> may<00:16:37.540> get
the economy of the area it may get
the economy of the area it may get
lowered<00:16:37.990> if<00:16:38.110> we<00:16:38.230> intervene<00:16:38.710> in<00:16:38.890> ways<00:16:38.920> that
lowered if we intervene in ways that
lowered if we intervene in ways that
encourage<00:16:39.460> people<00:16:39.910> to<00:16:40.240> stay<00:16:40.840> more<00:16:41.080> faithful
encourage people to stay more faithful
encourage people to stay more faithful
departments<00:16:42.490> and<00:16:42.550> so<00:16:42.700> on<00:16:42.850> but<00:16:43.300> the<00:16:43.660> key<00:16:43.840> thing
departments and so on but the key thing
departments and so on but the key thing
is<00:16:44.110> to<00:16:44.290> figure<00:16:44.410> out<00:16:44.560> how<00:16:44.800> to<00:16:44.860> lower<00:16:45.190> it<00:16:45.430> because
is to figure out how to lower it because
is to figure out how to lower it because
if<00:16:45.910> we<00:16:46.030> lower<00:16:46.240> it<00:16:46.330> we'll<00:16:47.020> get<00:16:47.200> an<00:16:47.350> evolutionary
if we lower it we'll get an evolutionary
if we lower it we'll get an evolutionary
change<00:16:47.920> in<00:16:48.340> the<00:16:48.430> virus<00:16:48.730> and<00:16:48.850> the<00:16:48.940> data<00:16:49.120> really
change in the virus and the data really
change in the virus and the data really
do<00:16:49.540> support<00:16:49.960> this<00:16:50.110> that<00:16:50.440> you<00:16:50.560> actually<00:16:50.800> do<00:16:51.130> get
do support this that you actually do get
do support this that you actually do get
the<00:16:51.400> virus<00:16:51.550> evolving<00:16:52.090> towards<00:16:52.390> mildness<00:16:52.750> and
the virus evolving towards mildness and
the virus evolving towards mildness and
that<00:16:53.110> will<00:16:53.230> just<00:16:53.470> add<00:16:53.620> to<00:16:53.710> the<00:16:55.050> effectiveness
that will just add to the effectiveness
that will just add to the effectiveness
of<00:16:56.320> our<00:16:56.740> control<00:16:57.610> efforts<00:16:58.270> so<00:16:58.870> the<00:16:58.990> other
of our control efforts so the other
of our control efforts so the other
thing<00:16:59.290> I<00:16:59.380> really<00:16:59.500> like<00:16:59.770> about<00:16:59.800> this<00:17:00.250> besides
thing I really like about this besides
thing I really like about this besides
the<00:17:00.910> fact<00:17:01.150> that<00:17:01.240> it<00:17:01.420> brings<00:17:01.630> a<00:17:01.750> whole<00:17:01.780> new
the fact that it brings a whole new
the fact that it brings a whole new
dimension<00:17:02.380> into<00:17:02.950> the<00:17:03.220> study<00:17:03.520> of<00:17:04.709> control<00:17:05.709> of
dimension into the study of control of
dimension into the study of control of
disease<00:17:06.010> is<00:17:06.370> that<00:17:06.880> often<00:17:07.540> the<00:17:07.660> kinds<00:17:07.930> of
disease is that often the kinds of
disease is that often the kinds of
interventions<00:17:08.199> that<00:17:08.650> you<00:17:08.800> want<00:17:09.070> to<00:17:09.189> that<00:17:09.579> it
interventions that you want to that it
interventions that you want to that it
indicates<00:17:10.420> should<00:17:10.600> be<00:17:10.689> done<00:17:10.870> are<00:17:11.230> the<00:17:11.470> kind<00:17:11.650> of
indicates should be done are the kind of
indicates should be done are the kind of
Vengeance<00:17:12.130> interventions<00:17:12.790> that<00:17:12.910> people<00:17:13.180> want
Vengeance interventions that people want
Vengeance interventions that people want
anyhow<00:17:13.689> but<00:17:13.900> people<00:17:14.170> just<00:17:14.650> haven't<00:17:14.949> been<00:17:15.040> able
anyhow but people just haven't been able
anyhow but people just haven't been able
to<00:17:15.250> justify<00:17:15.760> the<00:17:15.820> cost<00:17:16.060> so<00:17:16.870> this<00:17:17.439> is<00:17:17.560> the<00:17:17.650> kind
to justify the cost so this is the kind
to justify the cost so this is the kind
of<00:17:17.860> thing<00:17:18.010> I'm<00:17:18.130> talking<00:17:18.310> about<00:17:18.579> if<00:17:19.329> we<00:17:19.510> know
of thing I'm talking about if we know
of thing I'm talking about if we know
that<00:17:19.870> we're<00:17:19.959> going<00:17:20.050> to<00:17:20.140> get<00:17:20.260> extra<00:17:20.620> bang<00:17:20.770> for
that we're going to get extra bang for
that we're going to get extra bang for
the<00:17:21.070> buck<00:17:21.100> from<00:17:21.459> providing<00:17:21.820> clean<00:17:22.120> water<00:17:22.150> then
the buck from providing clean water then
the buck from providing clean water then
I<00:17:23.260> think<00:17:23.860> that<00:17:23.980> we<00:17:24.070> can<00:17:24.220> say<00:17:24.400> let's<00:17:24.790> push<00:17:25.449> the
I think that we can say let's push the
I think that we can say let's push the
effort<00:17:26.020> into<00:17:26.800> that<00:17:26.949> aspect<00:17:27.220> of<00:17:27.670> the<00:17:27.790> control
effort into that aspect of the control
effort into that aspect of the control
so<00:17:28.600> that<00:17:28.630> we<00:17:28.840> can<00:17:29.020> actually<00:17:29.580> solve<00:17:30.580> the
so that we can actually solve the
so that we can actually solve the
problem<00:17:30.820> even<00:17:31.420> though<00:17:31.630> if<00:17:32.560> you<00:17:32.680> just<00:17:32.710> look<00:17:33.010> at
problem even though if you just look at
problem even though if you just look at
the<00:17:33.190> frequency<00:17:33.610> of<00:17:33.700> infection<00:17:34.180> you<00:17:34.870> would
the frequency of infection you would
the frequency of infection you would
suggest<00:17:35.140> that<00:17:35.470> you<00:17:36.100> can't<00:17:36.850> solve<00:17:37.060> the<00:17:37.180> problem
suggest that you can't solve the problem
suggest that you can't solve the problem
well<00:17:37.660> enough<00:17:37.870> just<00:17:37.900> by<00:17:38.200> cleaning<00:17:38.470> up<00:17:38.590> water
well enough just by cleaning up water
well enough just by cleaning up water
supply<00:17:39.160> you<00:17:39.610> know<00:17:39.730> oh<00:17:39.880> in<00:17:40.150> there<00:17:40.510> and<00:17:40.780> thank
supply you know oh in there and thank
supply you know oh in there and thank
you<00:17:41.080> very<00:17:41.170> much
you very much
you very much
you
Paul, Ewald, germ, germs, domesticate, germs, TEDEducation, TED-Ed, TED, Ed
