A light switch for neurons - Ed Boyden
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[Music]
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think<00:00:16.160> about<00:00:16.320> your<00:00:16.480> day<00:00:16.600> for<00:00:16.760> a<00:00:16.880> second<00:00:17.199> you
think about your day for a second you
think about your day for a second you
woke<00:00:17.560> up<00:00:18.039> felt<00:00:18.279> fresh<00:00:18.480> air<00:00:18.640> in<00:00:18.760> your<00:00:18.880> face<00:00:19.039> as
woke up felt fresh air in your face as
woke up felt fresh air in your face as
you<00:00:19.240> walked<00:00:19.480> out<00:00:19.600> the<00:00:19.760> door<00:00:20.400> encountered<00:00:21.039> new
you walked out the door encountered new
you walked out the door encountered new
colleagues<00:00:21.720> and<00:00:21.840> had<00:00:22.000> great<00:00:22.199> discussions<00:00:22.680> and
colleagues and had great discussions and
colleagues and had great discussions and
felt<00:00:23.000> in<00:00:23.160> awe<00:00:23.400> when<00:00:23.519> you<00:00:23.720> found<00:00:24.000> something<00:00:24.320> new
felt in awe when you found something new
felt in awe when you found something new
but<00:00:25.279> I<00:00:25.439> bet<00:00:25.560> there's<00:00:25.720> something<00:00:25.920> that<00:00:26.000> you
but I bet there's something that you
but I bet there's something that you
didn't<00:00:26.359> think<00:00:26.519> about<00:00:26.720> today<00:00:27.199> something<00:00:27.480> so
didn't think about today something so
didn't think about today something so
close<00:00:27.880> to<00:00:28.039> home<00:00:28.720> that<00:00:28.840> you<00:00:28.960> probably<00:00:29.199> don't
close to home that you probably don't
close to home that you probably don't
think<00:00:29.480> about<00:00:29.599> it<00:00:29.679> very<00:00:29.800> often<00:00:30.160> at<00:00:30.279> all<00:00:30.840> and
think about it very often at all and
think about it very often at all and
that's<00:00:31.080> that<00:00:31.240> all<00:00:31.480> those<00:00:31.679> Sensations
that's that all those Sensations
that's that all those Sensations
feelings<00:00:33.480> decisions<00:00:33.920> and<00:00:34.120> actions<00:00:34.960> are
feelings decisions and actions are
feelings decisions and actions are
mediated<00:00:35.520> by<00:00:35.640> the<00:00:35.719> computer<00:00:36.040> in<00:00:36.120> your<00:00:36.320> head
mediated by the computer in your head
mediated by the computer in your head
called<00:00:37.160> your<00:00:37.600> brain<00:00:38.600> now<00:00:39.079> the<00:00:39.200> brain<00:00:39.399> may<00:00:39.520> not
called your brain now the brain may not
called your brain now the brain may not
look<00:00:39.760> like<00:00:39.879> much<00:00:40.079> from<00:00:40.200> the<00:00:40.320> outside<00:00:41.079> a<00:00:41.200> couple
look like much from the outside a couple
look like much from the outside a couple
pounds<00:00:41.800> of<00:00:41.960> pinkish<00:00:42.320> gray<00:00:42.559> flesh<00:00:43.800> amorphous
pounds of pinkish gray flesh amorphous
pounds of pinkish gray flesh amorphous
but<00:00:44.920> the<00:00:45.039> last<00:00:45.280> 100<00:00:45.480> years<00:00:45.640> of<00:00:45.760> Neuroscience
but the last 100 years of Neuroscience
but the last 100 years of Neuroscience
have<00:00:46.440> allowed<00:00:46.680> us<00:00:46.760> to<00:00:46.879> zoom<00:00:47.079> in<00:00:47.160> on<00:00:47.280> the<00:00:47.399> brain
have allowed us to zoom in on the brain
have allowed us to zoom in on the brain
and<00:00:47.960> to<00:00:48.160> see<00:00:48.760> the<00:00:48.879> intricacy<00:00:49.360> of<00:00:49.440> what<00:00:49.559> lies
and to see the intricacy of what lies
and to see the intricacy of what lies
within<00:00:50.079> and<00:00:50.160> they've<00:00:50.360> told<00:00:50.600> us<00:00:51.559> that<00:00:51.719> this
within and they've told us that this
within and they've told us that this
brain<00:00:52.440> is<00:00:52.559> an<00:00:52.719> incredibly<00:00:53.239> complicated
brain is an incredibly complicated
brain is an incredibly complicated
circuit<00:00:54.399> made<00:00:54.559> out<00:00:54.680> of<00:00:54.800> hundreds<00:00:55.239> of<00:00:55.480> billions
circuit made out of hundreds of billions
circuit made out of hundreds of billions
of<00:00:56.440> cells<00:00:57.120> called<00:00:57.359> neurons<00:00:58.199> now<00:00:59.079> unlike<00:00:59.920> a
of cells called neurons now unlike a
of cells called neurons now unlike a
human<00:01:00.359> design<00:01:00.680> computer<00:01:01.480> where<00:01:01.840> there's<00:01:02.039> a
human design computer where there's a
human design computer where there's a
fairly<00:01:02.440> small<00:01:02.640> number<00:01:02.840> of<00:01:02.920> different<00:01:03.120> parts
fairly small number of different parts
fairly small number of different parts
we<00:01:03.519> know<00:01:03.640> how<00:01:03.760> they<00:01:03.920> work<00:01:04.559> because<00:01:04.799> we<00:01:04.920> humans
we know how they work because we humans
we know how they work because we humans
design<00:01:05.920> them<00:01:06.920> the<00:01:07.040> brain<00:01:07.400> is<00:01:07.520> made<00:01:07.680> out<00:01:07.759> of
design them the brain is made out of
design them the brain is made out of
thousands<00:01:08.479> of<00:01:08.680> different<00:01:09.159> kinds<00:01:09.400> of<00:01:09.560> cell
thousands of different kinds of cell
thousands of different kinds of cell
maybe<00:01:10.080> tens<00:01:10.280> of<00:01:10.439> thousands<00:01:11.200> they<00:01:11.320> come<00:01:11.439> in
maybe tens of thousands they come in
maybe tens of thousands they come in
different<00:01:11.840> shapes<00:01:12.439> they're<00:01:12.600> made<00:01:12.720> out<00:01:12.840> of
different shapes they're made out of
different shapes they're made out of
different<00:01:13.280> molecules<00:01:14.119> and<00:01:14.240> they<00:01:14.400> project<00:01:14.799> and
different molecules and they project and
different molecules and they project and
connect<00:01:15.200> to<00:01:15.400> different<00:01:15.920> brain<00:01:16.159> regions<00:01:16.520> and
connect to different brain regions and
connect to different brain regions and
they<00:01:16.720> also<00:01:16.920> change<00:01:17.200> different<00:01:17.400> ways<00:01:17.560> in
they also change different ways in
they also change different ways in
different<00:01:17.880> disease<00:01:18.720> States<00:01:19.720> just<00:01:19.840> to<00:01:19.960> make<00:01:20.079> it
different disease States just to make it
different disease States just to make it
concrete<00:01:21.400> there's<00:01:21.600> a<00:01:21.720> class<00:01:21.920> of<00:01:22.040> cells<00:01:22.880> a
concrete there's a class of cells a
concrete there's a class of cells a
fairly<00:01:23.360> small<00:01:24.079> cell<00:01:24.400> an<00:01:24.600> inhibitory<00:01:25.119> cell
fairly small cell an inhibitory cell
fairly small cell an inhibitory cell
that<00:01:25.520> quiets<00:01:25.920> its<00:01:26.040> neighbors<00:01:27.040> it's<00:01:27.159> one<00:01:27.280> of
that quiets its neighbors it's one of
that quiets its neighbors it's one of
the<00:01:27.479> cells<00:01:27.720> that<00:01:27.840> seem<00:01:28.000> to<00:01:28.119> be<00:01:28.240> atrophied<00:01:28.680> in
the cells that seem to be atrophied in
the cells that seem to be atrophied in
disorders<00:01:29.200> like<00:01:29.320> schizophrenia
disorders like schizophrenia
disorders like schizophrenia
called<00:01:30.600> the<00:01:30.720> basket
called the basket
called the basket
cell<00:01:32.680> and<00:01:32.840> this<00:01:33.000> cell<00:01:33.360> is<00:01:33.520> one<00:01:33.600> of<00:01:33.759> the
cell and this cell is one of the
cell and this cell is one of the
thousands<00:01:34.240> of<00:01:34.360> kinds<00:01:34.560> of<00:01:34.680> cell<00:01:35.000> that<00:01:35.159> we<00:01:35.240> are
thousands of kinds of cell that we are
thousands of kinds of cell that we are
learning<00:01:36.040> about<00:01:36.280> new<00:01:36.399> ones<00:01:36.560> are<00:01:36.680> being
learning about new ones are being
learning about new ones are being
discovered<00:01:37.560> every
discovered every
discovered every
day<00:01:39.360> as<00:01:39.560> just<00:01:39.640> a<00:01:39.759> second<00:01:40.079> example<00:01:40.840> these
day as just a second example these
day as just a second example these
paramal<00:01:41.479> cells<00:01:42.159> large<00:01:42.439> cells<00:01:42.759> they<00:01:42.840> can<00:01:43.040> span
paramal cells large cells they can span
paramal cells large cells they can span
a<00:01:44.040> significant<00:01:44.399> fraction<00:01:44.640> of<00:01:44.719> the<00:01:44.840> brain
a significant fraction of the brain
a significant fraction of the brain
they're<00:01:45.560> excitatory<00:01:46.560> and<00:01:46.920> these<00:01:47.040> are<00:01:47.159> some<00:01:47.280> of
they're excitatory and these are some of
they're excitatory and these are some of
the<00:01:47.439> cells<00:01:47.719> that<00:01:47.880> might<00:01:48.040> be<00:01:48.640> overactive<00:01:49.640> in
the cells that might be overactive in
the cells that might be overactive in
disorders<00:01:50.479> such<00:01:50.640> as<00:01:51.280> epilepsy<00:01:52.280> every<00:01:52.439> one<00:01:52.560> of
disorders such as epilepsy every one of
disorders such as epilepsy every one of
these<00:01:52.799> cells<00:01:53.759> is<00:01:53.920> an<00:01:54.159> incredible<00:01:55.159> electrical
these cells is an incredible electrical
these cells is an incredible electrical
device<00:01:56.640> they<00:01:56.799> receive<00:01:57.159> inputs<00:01:57.520> from
device they receive inputs from
device they receive inputs from
thousands<00:01:58.039> of<00:01:58.159> Upstream<00:01:58.560> partners<00:01:59.039> and
thousands of Upstream partners and
thousands of Upstream partners and
compute<00:02:00.119> their<00:02:00.240> own<00:02:00.399> electrical<00:02:00.799> outputs
compute their own electrical outputs
compute their own electrical outputs
which<00:02:02.039> then<00:02:02.600> if<00:02:02.719> they<00:02:02.840> pass<00:02:03.000> a<00:02:03.119> certain
which then if they pass a certain
which then if they pass a certain
threshold<00:02:03.920> will<00:02:04.079> go<00:02:04.200> to<00:02:04.399> thousands<00:02:04.719> of
threshold will go to thousands of
threshold will go to thousands of
Downstream<00:02:05.280> partners<00:02:05.960> and<00:02:06.119> this<00:02:06.360> process
Downstream partners and this process
Downstream partners and this process
which<00:02:06.840> takes<00:02:07.119> just<00:02:07.399> you<00:02:07.479> know<00:02:07.600> a<00:02:07.719> millisecond
which takes just you know a millisecond
which takes just you know a millisecond
or<00:02:08.399> so<00:02:08.879> happens<00:02:09.599> thousands<00:02:09.920> of<00:02:10.039> times<00:02:10.200> a
or so happens thousands of times a
or so happens thousands of times a
minute<00:02:10.560> in<00:02:10.720> every<00:02:10.879> one<00:02:11.000> of<00:02:11.120> your<00:02:11.280> 100<00:02:11.520> billion
minute in every one of your 100 billion
minute in every one of your 100 billion
cells<00:02:12.879> as<00:02:13.040> long<00:02:13.200> as<00:02:13.319> you<00:02:13.520> live<00:02:13.920> and<00:02:14.120> think<00:02:14.800> and
cells as long as you live and think and
cells as long as you live and think and
feel<00:02:17.120> so<00:02:18.080> how<00:02:18.200> are<00:02:18.280> we<00:02:18.400> going<00:02:18.480> to<00:02:18.599> figure<00:02:18.840> out
feel so how are we going to figure out
feel so how are we going to figure out
what<00:02:19.920> this<00:02:20.080> circuit<00:02:20.519> does<00:02:21.080> ideally<00:02:21.480> we<00:02:21.599> could
what this circuit does ideally we could
what this circuit does ideally we could
go<00:02:21.879> through<00:02:22.040> this<00:02:22.160> circuit<00:02:22.760> and<00:02:22.879> turn<00:02:23.160> these
go through this circuit and turn these
go through this circuit and turn these
different<00:02:23.560> kinds<00:02:23.800> of<00:02:23.920> cell<00:02:24.239> on<00:02:24.400> and<00:02:24.640> off<00:02:25.599> and
different kinds of cell on and off and
different kinds of cell on and off and
see<00:02:26.040> whether<00:02:26.280> we<00:02:26.400> could<00:02:26.519> figure<00:02:26.800> out<00:02:27.319> which
see whether we could figure out which
see whether we could figure out which
ones<00:02:28.120> contribute<00:02:28.560> to<00:02:28.720> certain<00:02:29.000> functions<00:02:29.480> and
ones contribute to certain functions and
ones contribute to certain functions and
which<00:02:29.800> TS<00:02:30.080> go<00:02:30.239> wrong<00:02:30.519> in<00:02:30.640> certain<00:02:31.080> pathologies
which TS go wrong in certain pathologies
which TS go wrong in certain pathologies
if<00:02:32.160> we<00:02:32.280> could<00:02:32.400> activate<00:02:32.760> cells<00:02:33.040> we<00:02:33.160> can<00:02:33.280> see
if we could activate cells we can see
if we could activate cells we can see
what<00:02:33.720> powers<00:02:34.360> they<00:02:34.440> can<00:02:34.560> unleash<00:02:34.959> what<00:02:35.080> they
what powers they can unleash what they
what powers they can unleash what they
can<00:02:35.319> initiate<00:02:35.680> and<00:02:35.800> sustain<00:02:36.160> if<00:02:36.239> we<00:02:36.319> can<00:02:36.440> turn
can initiate and sustain if we can turn
can initiate and sustain if we can turn
them<00:02:36.800> off<00:02:37.599> then<00:02:38.280> we<00:02:38.400> could<00:02:38.519> try<00:02:38.640> and<00:02:38.760> figure
them off then we could try and figure
them off then we could try and figure
out<00:02:38.959> what<00:02:39.040> they're<00:02:39.200> necessary<00:02:39.680> for<00:02:40.680> and
out what they're necessary for and
out what they're necessary for and
that's<00:02:40.920> the<00:02:41.080> story<00:02:41.440> I'm<00:02:41.560> going<00:02:41.640> to<00:02:41.760> tell<00:02:41.920> you
that's the story I'm going to tell you
that's the story I'm going to tell you
about
about
about
today<00:02:44.280> an<00:02:44.440> odyssey<00:02:44.840> where<00:02:45.000> we've<00:02:45.200> gone
today an odyssey where we've gone
today an odyssey where we've gone
through<00:02:45.680> over<00:02:45.879> the<00:02:46.000> last<00:02:46.159> 11<00:02:46.440> years<00:02:46.680> through
through over the last 11 years through
through over the last 11 years through
an<00:02:47.000> attempt<00:02:47.239> to<00:02:47.360> find<00:02:47.640> ways<00:02:47.840> of<00:02:48.000> turning
an attempt to find ways of turning
an attempt to find ways of turning
circuits<00:02:49.400> and<00:02:49.519> cells<00:02:49.959> and<00:02:50.120> parts<00:02:50.440> and
circuits and cells and parts and
circuits and cells and parts and
Pathways<00:02:50.920> of<00:02:51.040> the<00:02:51.120> brain<00:02:51.360> on<00:02:51.519> and<00:02:51.720> off<00:02:52.519> both<00:02:52.720> to
Pathways of the brain on and off both to
Pathways of the brain on and off both to
understand<00:02:53.440> the<00:02:53.720> science<00:02:54.720> and<00:02:54.920> also<00:02:55.879> to
understand the science and also to
understand the science and also to
confront<00:02:57.000> some<00:02:57.120> of<00:02:57.239> the<00:02:57.360> issues<00:02:58.319> that<00:02:58.480> face<00:02:58.680> us
confront some of the issues that face us
confront some of the issues that face us
all<00:02:58.959> as<00:02:59.120> humans
all as humans
all as humans
now<00:03:01.200> before<00:03:01.360> I<00:03:01.480> tell<00:03:01.599> you<00:03:01.680> out<00:03:01.800> the<00:03:02.120> technology
now before I tell you out the technology
now before I tell you out the technology
the<00:03:03.280> bad<00:03:03.519> news<00:03:03.879> is<00:03:04.120> that<00:03:04.560> uh<00:03:04.760> a<00:03:04.879> significant
the bad news is that uh a significant
the bad news is that uh a significant
fraction<00:03:05.799> of<00:03:06.040> us<00:03:06.319> in<00:03:06.440> this<00:03:06.640> room<00:03:07.120> if<00:03:07.280> we<00:03:07.480> live
fraction of us in this room if we live
fraction of us in this room if we live
long<00:03:07.920> enough<00:03:08.120> will<00:03:08.360> encounter<00:03:08.879> perhaps<00:03:09.239> a
long enough will encounter perhaps a
long enough will encounter perhaps a
brain<00:03:10.040> disorder<00:03:11.040> um<00:03:11.159> already<00:03:11.440> a<00:03:11.560> billion
brain disorder um already a billion
brain disorder um already a billion
people<00:03:12.720> have<00:03:12.959> had<00:03:13.680> uh<00:03:13.799> some<00:03:13.959> kind<00:03:14.120> of<00:03:14.200> brain
people have had uh some kind of brain
people have had uh some kind of brain
disorder<00:03:14.720> that<00:03:14.840> incapacitates<00:03:15.560> them<00:03:16.400> and<00:03:16.519> the
disorder that incapacitates them and the
disorder that incapacitates them and the
numbers<00:03:16.920> don't<00:03:17.120> do<00:03:17.239> it<00:03:17.440> justice<00:03:17.840> though<00:03:18.760> these
numbers don't do it justice though these
numbers don't do it justice though these
disorders<00:03:19.680> schizophrenia<00:03:20.400> Alzheimer's
disorders schizophrenia Alzheimer's
disorders schizophrenia Alzheimer's
depression<00:03:21.599> addiction<00:03:22.239> they<00:03:22.400> not<00:03:22.480> only<00:03:22.640> steal
depression addiction they not only steal
depression addiction they not only steal
away<00:03:23.080> our<00:03:23.239> time<00:03:23.400> to<00:03:23.560> live<00:03:24.519> they<00:03:24.640> change<00:03:24.879> who<00:03:25.040> we
away our time to live they change who we
away our time to live they change who we
are<00:03:25.360> they<00:03:25.480> take<00:03:25.720> our<00:03:25.879> identity<00:03:26.360> and<00:03:26.480> change
are they take our identity and change
are they take our identity and change
our<00:03:26.840> emotions<00:03:27.840> and<00:03:28.159> change<00:03:28.439> who<00:03:28.560> we<00:03:28.720> are<00:03:29.080> as
our emotions and change who we are as
our emotions and change who we are as
people
people
people
now<00:03:31.840> in<00:03:31.959> the<00:03:32.080> 20th
now in the 20th
now in the 20th
century<00:03:34.319> there<00:03:34.480> was<00:03:34.599> some<00:03:34.799> hope<00:03:35.040> that<00:03:35.120> was
century there was some hope that was
century there was some hope that was
generated<00:03:36.640> through<00:03:37.040> the<00:03:37.200> development<00:03:37.560> of
generated through the development of
generated through the development of
pharmaceuticals<00:03:38.280> for<00:03:38.439> treating<00:03:38.680> brain
pharmaceuticals for treating brain
pharmaceuticals for treating brain
disorders<00:03:40.360> and<00:03:40.599> while<00:03:40.799> many<00:03:41.239> drugs<00:03:41.560> have<00:03:41.840> been
disorders and while many drugs have been
disorders and while many drugs have been
developed<00:03:42.360> that<00:03:42.439> can<00:03:42.560> alleviate<00:03:42.959> symptoms<00:03:43.720> of
developed that can alleviate symptoms of
developed that can alleviate symptoms of
brain<00:03:44.159> disorders<00:03:45.159> practically<00:03:45.480> none<00:03:45.599> of<00:03:45.720> them
brain disorders practically none of them
brain disorders practically none of them
can<00:03:45.959> be<00:03:46.080> considered<00:03:46.439> to<00:03:46.519> be<00:03:46.720> cured<00:03:47.239> and<00:03:47.319> in
can be considered to be cured and in
can be considered to be cured and in
part<00:03:47.760> that's<00:03:48.000> because<00:03:48.599> if<00:03:48.640> you<00:03:48.799> think<00:03:48.920> about
part that's because if you think about
part that's because if you think about
it<00:03:49.200> we're<00:03:49.319> bathing<00:03:49.640> the<00:03:49.720> brain<00:03:49.920> in<00:03:50.000> a<00:03:50.159> chemical
it we're bathing the brain in a chemical
it we're bathing the brain in a chemical
this<00:03:51.120> elaborate<00:03:51.519> circuit<00:03:51.840> made<00:03:52.000> out<00:03:52.079> of
this elaborate circuit made out of
this elaborate circuit made out of
thousands<00:03:52.599> different<00:03:52.799> kinds<00:03:53.040> of<00:03:53.200> cell<00:03:54.200> is
thousands different kinds of cell is
thousands different kinds of cell is
being<00:03:54.680> bathed<00:03:55.159> in<00:03:55.360> a<00:03:55.519> substance<00:03:56.360> that's<00:03:56.560> also
being bathed in a substance that's also
being bathed in a substance that's also
why<00:03:57.439> perhaps<00:03:57.760> most<00:03:57.920> of<00:03:58.040> the<00:03:58.120> drugs<00:03:58.480> not<00:03:58.599> all<00:03:58.720> on
why perhaps most of the drugs not all on
why perhaps most of the drugs not all on
the<00:03:58.879> market<00:03:59.159> can<00:03:59.280> present<00:03:59.680> some<00:03:59.799> kind<00:03:59.959> of
the market can present some kind of
the market can present some kind of
serious<00:04:00.360> side<00:04:00.560> effect<00:04:01.079> too<00:04:02.079> now<00:04:02.200> some<00:04:02.400> people
serious side effect too now some people
serious side effect too now some people
have<00:04:02.799> gotten<00:04:03.079> some<00:04:03.599> Solus<00:04:04.239> from<00:04:04.959> electrical
have gotten some Solus from electrical
have gotten some Solus from electrical
stimulators<00:04:05.879> that<00:04:05.959> are<00:04:06.040> implanted<00:04:06.400> in<00:04:06.480> the
stimulators that are implanted in the
stimulators that are implanted in the
brain<00:04:07.480> and<00:04:08.280> for<00:04:08.560> Parkinson's<00:04:09.120> Disease<00:04:09.519> cular
brain and for Parkinson's Disease cular
brain and for Parkinson's Disease cular
implants<00:04:11.120> these<00:04:11.319> have<00:04:11.480> indeed<00:04:11.799> been<00:04:11.959> able<00:04:12.239> to
implants these have indeed been able to
implants these have indeed been able to
uh<00:04:13.120> bring<00:04:13.439> some<00:04:13.680> kind<00:04:14.000> of<00:04:14.200> remedy<00:04:14.720> to<00:04:15.000> people
uh bring some kind of remedy to people
uh bring some kind of remedy to people
with<00:04:15.319> certain<00:04:15.640> kinds<00:04:15.799> of<00:04:16.000> disorder<00:04:17.000> but<00:04:18.000> uh
with certain kinds of disorder but uh
with certain kinds of disorder but uh
electricity<00:04:18.720> also<00:04:19.000> will<00:04:19.160> go<00:04:19.280> in<00:04:19.400> all
electricity also will go in all
electricity also will go in all
directions<00:04:19.840> the<00:04:19.959> path<00:04:20.160> of<00:04:20.479> leas<00:04:20.720> resistance
directions the path of leas resistance
directions the path of leas resistance
which<00:04:21.320> is<00:04:21.440> kind<00:04:21.560> of<00:04:21.680> where<00:04:21.840> that<00:04:22.079> phrase<00:04:22.360> in
which is kind of where that phrase in
which is kind of where that phrase in
part<00:04:22.639> comes<00:04:22.880> from<00:04:23.360> and<00:04:23.479> it<00:04:23.639> also<00:04:23.840> will<00:04:24.000> affect
part comes from and it also will affect
part comes from and it also will affect
normal<00:04:24.520> circuits<00:04:24.919> as<00:04:25.000> well<00:04:25.120> as<00:04:25.240> the<00:04:25.360> abnormal
normal circuits as well as the abnormal
normal circuits as well as the abnormal
ones<00:04:26.240> that<00:04:26.360> you<00:04:26.440> want<00:04:26.520> to<00:04:26.680> fix<00:04:26.919> so<00:04:27.160> again<00:04:27.680> we're
ones that you want to fix so again we're
ones that you want to fix so again we're
sent<00:04:28.240> back<00:04:28.400> to<00:04:28.520> the<00:04:28.680> idea<00:04:29.000> of<00:04:29.160> ultra<00:04:29.880> control
sent back to the idea of ultra control
sent back to the idea of ultra control
could<00:04:30.360> we<00:04:30.479> dial<00:04:30.759> in<00:04:30.960> information<00:04:31.840> precisely
could we dial in information precisely
could we dial in information precisely
where<00:04:32.360> we<00:04:32.479> want<00:04:32.600> it<00:04:32.720> to
where we want it to
where we want it to
go<00:04:35.320> so<00:04:35.560> when<00:04:35.680> I<00:04:35.800> started<00:04:36.039> in<00:04:36.160> Neuroscience<00:04:37.080> 11
go so when I started in Neuroscience 11
go so when I started in Neuroscience 11
years<00:04:37.600> ago<00:04:38.560> I<00:04:38.800> had<00:04:38.960> trained<00:04:39.440> as<00:04:39.520> an<00:04:39.600> electrical
years ago I had trained as an electrical
years ago I had trained as an electrical
engineer<00:04:40.240> and<00:04:40.320> a<00:04:40.759> physicist<00:04:41.759> and<00:04:42.039> the<00:04:42.120> first
engineer and a physicist and the first
engineer and a physicist and the first
thing<00:04:42.400> I<00:04:42.479> thought<00:04:42.639> about<00:04:42.840> was<00:04:43.039> well<00:04:43.240> if<00:04:43.360> these
thing I thought about was well if these
thing I thought about was well if these
neurons<00:04:43.960> are<00:04:44.120> electrical<00:04:44.520> devices<00:04:45.440> all<00:04:45.639> we
neurons are electrical devices all we
neurons are electrical devices all we
need<00:04:45.880> to<00:04:46.039> do<00:04:46.320> is<00:04:46.440> to<00:04:46.600> find<00:04:46.800> some<00:04:47.039> way<00:04:47.840> of
need to do is to find some way of
need to do is to find some way of
driving<00:04:48.400> those<00:04:48.560> electrical<00:04:48.919> changes<00:04:49.360> at<00:04:49.440> a
driving those electrical changes at a
driving those electrical changes at a
distance<00:04:50.080> if<00:04:50.160> we<00:04:50.280> could<00:04:50.360> turn<00:04:50.520> on<00:04:50.600> the
distance if we could turn on the
distance if we could turn on the
electricity<00:04:51.120> in<00:04:51.240> one<00:04:51.400> cell<00:04:51.840> but<00:04:51.960> not<00:04:52.120> its
electricity in one cell but not its
electricity in one cell but not its
neighbors<00:04:53.320> that<00:04:53.440> would<00:04:53.600> give<00:04:53.759> us<00:04:53.880> the<00:04:54.000> tool<00:04:54.199> we
neighbors that would give us the tool we
neighbors that would give us the tool we
need<00:04:54.560> to<00:04:54.759> activate<00:04:55.080> and<00:04:55.199> shut<00:04:55.440> down<00:04:55.639> these
need to activate and shut down these
need to activate and shut down these
different<00:04:56.280> cells<00:04:56.600> to<00:04:56.680> figure<00:04:56.840> out<00:04:56.919> what<00:04:57.000> they
different cells to figure out what they
different cells to figure out what they
do<00:04:57.240> and<00:04:57.360> how<00:04:57.479> they<00:04:57.600> contribute<00:04:57.960> to<00:04:58.039> the
do and how they contribute to the
do and how they contribute to the
networks<00:04:58.440> in<00:04:58.520> which<00:04:58.639> they're<00:04:58.800> embedded<00:04:59.639> and
networks in which they're embedded and
networks in which they're embedded and
also<00:05:00.039> it<00:05:00.160> allow<00:05:00.400> us<00:05:00.560> to<00:05:00.720> have<00:05:00.880> the<00:05:00.960> ultra
also it allow us to have the ultra
also it allow us to have the ultra
precise<00:05:01.600> control<00:05:01.919> we<00:05:02.080> need<00:05:02.880> in<00:05:03.039> order<00:05:03.720> to<00:05:04.080> fix
precise control we need in order to fix
precise control we need in order to fix
the<00:05:04.600> circuit<00:05:04.919> computations<00:05:05.639> that<00:05:05.759> have<00:05:05.880> gone
the circuit computations that have gone
the circuit computations that have gone
aride<00:05:07.880> now<00:05:08.360> how<00:05:08.479> we're<00:05:08.600> going<00:05:08.680> to<00:05:08.800> do<00:05:08.960> that
aride now how we're going to do that
aride now how we're going to do that
well<00:05:09.479> there<00:05:09.560> are<00:05:09.680> many<00:05:09.880> molecules<00:05:10.639> that<00:05:10.800> exist
well there are many molecules that exist
well there are many molecules that exist
in<00:05:11.199> nature<00:05:12.080> which<00:05:12.520> are<00:05:12.880> able<00:05:13.320> to<00:05:13.520> convert
in nature which are able to convert
in nature which are able to convert
light<00:05:14.199> into<00:05:14.440> electricity<00:05:15.160> you<00:05:15.280> can<00:05:15.440> think
light into electricity you can think
light into electricity you can think
them<00:05:15.800> as<00:05:15.960> little<00:05:16.240> proteins<00:05:16.720> that<00:05:16.800> are<00:05:16.960> like
them as little proteins that are like
them as little proteins that are like
solar<00:05:17.440> cells<00:05:18.440> if<00:05:18.520> we<00:05:18.720> install<00:05:19.199> these
solar cells if we install these
solar cells if we install these
molecules<00:05:20.039> in<00:05:20.240> neurons<00:05:20.639> somehow<00:05:21.360> then<00:05:21.720> these
molecules in neurons somehow then these
molecules in neurons somehow then these
neurons<00:05:22.319> would<00:05:22.520> become<00:05:22.880> electrically
neurons would become electrically
neurons would become electrically
drivable<00:05:24.120> with<00:05:24.280> light<00:05:24.600> and<00:05:24.720> their<00:05:24.840> neighbors
drivable with light and their neighbors
drivable with light and their neighbors
which<00:05:25.360> don't<00:05:25.520> have<00:05:25.680> this<00:05:25.800> molecule<00:05:26.440> would<00:05:26.800> not
which don't have this molecule would not
which don't have this molecule would not
there's<00:05:27.960> one<00:05:28.080> other<00:05:28.240> magic<00:05:28.479> trick<00:05:28.639> you<00:05:28.720> need
there's one other magic trick you need
there's one other magic trick you need
to<00:05:28.960> make<00:05:29.080> this<00:05:29.160> all<00:05:29.280> happen
to make this all happen
to make this all happen
and<00:05:30.199> that's<00:05:30.360> a<00:05:30.520> to<00:05:30.639> get<00:05:30.759> light<00:05:31.039> into<00:05:31.199> the<00:05:31.319> brain
and that's a to get light into the brain
and that's a to get light into the brain
and<00:05:32.160> to<00:05:32.280> do<00:05:32.479> that<00:05:33.120> the<00:05:33.280> brain<00:05:33.520> doesn't<00:05:33.759> feel
and to do that the brain doesn't feel
and to do that the brain doesn't feel
pain<00:05:34.280> you<00:05:34.360> can<00:05:34.560> put<00:05:35.039> taking<00:05:35.280> advantage<00:05:35.600> of<00:05:35.759> all
pain you can put taking advantage of all
pain you can put taking advantage of all
the<00:05:36.400> effort<00:05:36.680> that's<00:05:36.840> gone<00:05:37.000> into<00:05:37.199> the<00:05:37.280> internet
the effort that's gone into the internet
the effort that's gone into the internet
in<00:05:37.639> telecomunications<00:05:38.319> and<00:05:38.440> so<00:05:38.560> on<00:05:38.960> optical
in telecomunications and so on optical
in telecomunications and so on optical
fibers<00:05:39.720> connected<00:05:40.000> to<00:05:40.120> lasers<00:05:40.560> that<00:05:40.680> you<00:05:40.759> can
fibers connected to lasers that you can
fibers connected to lasers that you can
use<00:05:41.520> to<00:05:41.759> activate<00:05:42.600> in<00:05:42.759> animal<00:05:43.039> models<00:05:43.360> for
use to activate in animal models for
use to activate in animal models for
example<00:05:43.960> in<00:05:44.160> preclinical<00:05:44.759> studies<00:05:45.520> these
example in preclinical studies these
example in preclinical studies these
neurons<00:05:46.000> and<00:05:46.120> to<00:05:46.199> see<00:05:46.360> what<00:05:46.479> they<00:05:47.080> do<00:05:48.080> so<00:05:48.199> how
neurons and to see what they do so how
neurons and to see what they do so how
do<00:05:48.400> we<00:05:48.520> do<00:05:48.960> this<00:05:49.960> around<00:05:50.360> 2004<00:05:51.039> in
do we do this around 2004 in
do we do this around 2004 in
collaboration<00:05:51.720> with<00:05:51.919> gir<00:05:52.160> ngle<00:05:52.479> and<00:05:52.560> Carl<00:05:52.800> dth
collaboration with gir ngle and Carl dth
collaboration with gir ngle and Carl dth
this<00:05:54.160> Vision<00:05:54.440> came<00:05:54.560> to<00:05:54.880> fruition<00:05:55.880> there's<00:05:56.039> a
this Vision came to fruition there's a
this Vision came to fruition there's a
certain<00:05:56.560> alga<00:05:57.560> that<00:05:57.680> swims<00:05:58.120> in<00:05:58.360> the<00:05:58.479> wild<00:05:58.880> and
certain alga that swims in the wild and
certain alga that swims in the wild and
it<00:05:59.039> needs<00:05:59.199> to<00:05:59.440> navigate<00:05:59.720> towards<00:06:00.000> light<00:06:00.199> in
it needs to navigate towards light in
it needs to navigate towards light in
order<00:06:00.440> to<00:06:00.560> photosynthesize<00:06:01.919> optimally<00:06:02.919> and
order to photosynthesize optimally and
order to photosynthesize optimally and
it<00:06:03.240> senses<00:06:03.720> light<00:06:03.880> with<00:06:04.000> a<00:06:04.080> little<00:06:04.280> eye<00:06:04.479> spot
it senses light with a little eye spot
it senses light with a little eye spot
which<00:06:04.960> works<00:06:05.280> not<00:06:05.520> unlike<00:06:05.840> how<00:06:06.000> our<00:06:06.199> Eye<00:06:06.599> Works
which works not unlike how our Eye Works
which works not unlike how our Eye Works
in<00:06:07.720> its<00:06:07.919> membrane<00:06:08.639> or<00:06:08.800> its<00:06:08.960> boundary<00:06:09.960> it
in its membrane or its boundary it
in its membrane or its boundary it
contains<00:06:11.160> little
contains little
contains little
proteins<00:06:13.160> that<00:06:13.319> indeed<00:06:13.680> can<00:06:13.840> convert<00:06:14.199> light
proteins that indeed can convert light
proteins that indeed can convert light
into<00:06:15.000> electricity<00:06:16.000> so<00:06:16.199> these<00:06:16.360> molecules<00:06:16.720> are
into electricity so these molecules are
into electricity so these molecules are
called<00:06:17.000> Channel<00:06:17.759> opsins<00:06:18.759> and<00:06:19.000> each<00:06:19.120> of<00:06:19.280> these
called Channel opsins and each of these
called Channel opsins and each of these
proteins<00:06:20.039> acts<00:06:20.280> just<00:06:20.400> like<00:06:20.520> that<00:06:20.639> solar<00:06:21.000> cell
proteins acts just like that solar cell
proteins acts just like that solar cell
that<00:06:21.520> I<00:06:21.599> told<00:06:21.800> you<00:06:21.919> about<00:06:22.120> when<00:06:22.280> blue<00:06:22.479> light
that I told you about when blue light
that I told you about when blue light
hits<00:06:22.919> it<00:06:23.360> it<00:06:23.479> opens<00:06:23.720> up<00:06:23.800> a<00:06:23.919> little<00:06:24.080> hole<00:06:24.599> and
hits it it opens up a little hole and
hits it it opens up a little hole and
allows<00:06:25.120> charge<00:06:25.440> particles<00:06:25.800> to<00:06:25.919> enter<00:06:26.120> the<00:06:26.240> ice
allows charge particles to enter the ice
allows charge particles to enter the ice
spot<00:06:26.680> and<00:06:26.800> that<00:06:26.960> allows<00:06:27.560> this<00:06:27.759> ice<00:06:28.000> spot<00:06:28.199> to
spot and that allows this ice spot to
spot and that allows this ice spot to
have<00:06:28.400> an<00:06:28.520> electrical<00:06:28.840> signal<00:06:29.160> just<00:06:29.240> like<00:06:29.479> a
have an electrical signal just like a
have an electrical signal just like a
solar<00:06:29.800> cell<00:06:30.000> charging<00:06:30.240> up<00:06:30.360> a<00:06:30.720> battery<00:06:31.720> so<00:06:31.840> what
solar cell charging up a battery so what
solar cell charging up a battery so what
we<00:06:32.039> need<00:06:32.160> to<00:06:32.280> do<00:06:32.440> is<00:06:32.560> to<00:06:32.720> take<00:06:33.039> these<00:06:33.240> molecules
we need to do is to take these molecules
we need to do is to take these molecules
and<00:06:34.080> somehow<00:06:34.400> install<00:06:34.680> them<00:06:34.800> in<00:06:34.880> neurons<00:06:35.280> and
and somehow install them in neurons and
and somehow install them in neurons and
because<00:06:35.520> it's<00:06:35.639> a<00:06:35.800> protein<00:06:36.400> it's<00:06:36.560> encoded<00:06:36.960> for
because it's a protein it's encoded for
because it's a protein it's encoded for
in<00:06:37.599> the<00:06:37.759> DNA<00:06:38.639> of<00:06:38.840> this<00:06:39.319> organism<00:06:40.240> so<00:06:40.400> all<00:06:40.479> we
in the DNA of this organism so all we
in the DNA of this organism so all we
got<00:06:40.720> to<00:06:40.840> do<00:06:40.960> is<00:06:41.120> take<00:06:41.280> that<00:06:41.400> DNA<00:06:42.319> put<00:06:42.479> it<00:06:42.560> into<00:06:42.720> a
got to do is take that DNA put it into a
got to do is take that DNA put it into a
gene<00:06:43.039> therapy<00:06:43.360> Vector<00:06:43.680> like<00:06:43.800> a<00:06:44.280> virus<00:06:45.280> and<00:06:45.520> put
gene therapy Vector like a virus and put
gene therapy Vector like a virus and put
it<00:06:45.759> into
it into
it into
neurons<00:06:48.319> so<00:06:48.880> turned<00:06:49.120> out<00:06:49.319> that<00:06:49.560> this<00:06:49.639> was<00:06:49.759> a
neurons so turned out that this was a
neurons so turned out that this was a
very<00:06:50.240> productive<00:06:50.720> time<00:06:51.039> in<00:06:51.240> gene<00:06:51.520> therapy<00:06:51.840> and
very productive time in gene therapy and
very productive time in gene therapy and
lots<00:06:52.080> of<00:06:52.199> viruses<00:06:52.520> were<00:06:52.639> coming<00:06:52.840> along<00:06:53.039> so
lots of viruses were coming along so
lots of viruses were coming along so
this<00:06:53.280> turned<00:06:53.440> out<00:06:53.560> to<00:06:53.680> be<00:06:54.160> fairly<00:06:54.400> simple<00:06:54.639> to
this turned out to be fairly simple to
this turned out to be fairly simple to
do<00:06:55.080> and<00:06:55.240> early<00:06:55.479> in<00:06:55.560> the<00:06:55.639> morning<00:06:56.479> uh<00:06:56.599> one<00:06:56.840> day
do and early in the morning uh one day
do and early in the morning uh one day
in<00:06:57.120> the<00:06:57.240> summer<00:06:57.520> of<00:06:57.840> 2004<00:06:58.280> we<00:06:58.400> give<00:06:58.520> it<00:06:58.599> a<00:06:58.680> try
in the summer of 2004 we give it a try
in the summer of 2004 we give it a try
and<00:06:58.879> it<00:06:58.960> worked<00:06:59.120> on<00:06:59.199> the<00:06:59.440> first<00:06:59.919> try<00:07:00.919> you<00:07:01.080> take
and it worked on the first try you take
and it worked on the first try you take
this<00:07:01.319> TNA<00:07:01.639> and<00:07:01.720> you<00:07:01.800> put<00:07:01.960> into<00:07:02.120> the<00:07:02.199> neuron<00:07:03.160> the
this TNA and you put into the neuron the
this TNA and you put into the neuron the
neuron<00:07:03.800> uses<00:07:04.240> its<00:07:04.520> natural<00:07:05.039> protein<00:07:05.360> making
neuron uses its natural protein making
neuron uses its natural protein making
Machinery<00:07:06.560> to<00:07:06.759> fabricate<00:07:07.160> these<00:07:07.360> little
Machinery to fabricate these little
Machinery to fabricate these little
light<00:07:08.120> sensitive<00:07:08.479> proteins<00:07:08.840> and<00:07:09.039> install
light sensitive proteins and install
light sensitive proteins and install
them<00:07:09.440> all<00:07:09.560> over<00:07:09.720> the<00:07:09.840> cell<00:07:10.080> like<00:07:10.199> putting
them all over the cell like putting
them all over the cell like putting
solar<00:07:10.680> panels<00:07:10.960> on<00:07:11.039> a
solar panels on a
solar panels on a
roof<00:07:12.800> and<00:07:12.919> the<00:07:13.039> next<00:07:13.160> thing<00:07:13.319> you<00:07:13.479> know<00:07:13.759> you
roof and the next thing you know you
roof and the next thing you know you
have<00:07:14.039> a<00:07:14.160> neuron<00:07:14.919> which<00:07:15.080> can<00:07:15.199> be<00:07:15.400> activated
have a neuron which can be activated
have a neuron which can be activated
with<00:07:16.160> light<00:07:17.160> so<00:07:17.319> this<00:07:17.400> is<00:07:17.560> very<00:07:17.720> powerful<00:07:18.680> one
with light so this is very powerful one
with light so this is very powerful one
of<00:07:18.879> the<00:07:18.960> tricks<00:07:19.199> you<00:07:19.360> have<00:07:19.440> to<00:07:19.599> do<00:07:19.879> is<00:07:20.000> to
of the tricks you have to do is to
of the tricks you have to do is to
figure<00:07:20.319> out<00:07:20.560> how<00:07:21.000> to<00:07:21.199> deliver<00:07:21.919> these<00:07:22.080> genes<00:07:22.360> to
figure out how to deliver these genes to
figure out how to deliver these genes to
the<00:07:22.560> cells<00:07:22.800> that<00:07:22.919> you<00:07:23.000> want<00:07:23.199> and<00:07:23.360> not<00:07:23.479> all<00:07:23.560> the
the cells that you want and not all the
the cells that you want and not all the
other<00:07:23.800> neighbors<00:07:24.319> right<00:07:24.759> and<00:07:24.840> you<00:07:24.960> can<00:07:25.120> do
other neighbors right and you can do
other neighbors right and you can do
that<00:07:25.520> you<00:07:25.639> can<00:07:25.800> tweak<00:07:26.280> the<00:07:26.400> viruses<00:07:26.840> so<00:07:26.960> they
that you can tweak the viruses so they
that you can tweak the viruses so they
hit<00:07:27.280> just<00:07:27.400> some<00:07:27.599> cells<00:07:28.240> and<00:07:28.360> not<00:07:28.520> others<00:07:28.960> and
hit just some cells and not others and
hit just some cells and not others and
there's<00:07:29.479> genetic<00:07:29.720> tricks<00:07:29.960> you<00:07:30.039> can<00:07:30.240> play<00:07:31.039> in
there's genetic tricks you can play in
there's genetic tricks you can play in
order<00:07:31.360> to<00:07:31.560> get<00:07:31.960> light<00:07:32.199> activated<00:07:33.160> cells<00:07:34.160> this
order to get light activated cells this
order to get light activated cells this
field<00:07:34.560> has<00:07:34.680> now<00:07:34.879> come<00:07:35.000> to<00:07:35.080> be<00:07:35.160> known<00:07:35.360> as
field has now come to be known as
field has now come to be known as
optogenetics<00:07:37.240> and<00:07:37.840> just<00:07:38.000> as<00:07:38.160> one<00:07:38.360> example<00:07:38.919> of
optogenetics and just as one example of
optogenetics and just as one example of
the<00:07:39.120> kind<00:07:39.240> of<00:07:39.360> thing<00:07:39.440> you<00:07:39.520> can<00:07:39.680> do<00:07:39.800> you<00:07:39.879> can
the kind of thing you can do you can
the kind of thing you can do you can
take<00:07:40.120> a<00:07:40.280> complex<00:07:40.840> Network<00:07:41.840> use<00:07:42.039> one<00:07:42.160> of<00:07:42.240> these
take a complex Network use one of these
take a complex Network use one of these
viruses<00:07:42.720> to<00:07:42.840> deliver<00:07:43.160> the<00:07:43.240> gene<00:07:43.520> just<00:07:43.599> to<00:07:43.800> one
viruses to deliver the gene just to one
viruses to deliver the gene just to one
kind<00:07:44.199> of<00:07:44.319> cell<00:07:44.639> in<00:07:44.759> this<00:07:44.919> dense<00:07:45.319> Network<00:07:46.319> and
kind of cell in this dense Network and
kind of cell in this dense Network and
then<00:07:46.639> when<00:07:46.720> you<00:07:46.840> shine<00:07:47.240> light<00:07:47.919> on<00:07:48.039> the<00:07:48.199> entire
then when you shine light on the entire
then when you shine light on the entire
network<00:07:48.879> just<00:07:49.080> that<00:07:49.199> cell<00:07:49.440> type<00:07:49.639> will<00:07:49.759> be
network just that cell type will be
network just that cell type will be
activated<00:07:50.319> so<00:07:50.440> for<00:07:50.560> example<00:07:50.800> let's<00:07:51.159> consider
activated so for example let's consider
activated so for example let's consider
that<00:07:51.560> basket<00:07:51.840> cell<00:07:52.039> I<00:07:52.120> told<00:07:52.240> you<00:07:52.360> about
that basket cell I told you about
that basket cell I told you about
earlier<00:07:53.599> the<00:07:53.680> one<00:07:53.840> that's<00:07:54.000> atrophied<00:07:54.440> in
earlier the one that's atrophied in
earlier the one that's atrophied in
schizophrenia<00:07:55.159> and<00:07:55.280> the<00:07:55.400> one<00:07:55.680> that<00:07:56.000> is
schizophrenia and the one that is
schizophrenia and the one that is
inhibitory<00:07:58.319> if<00:07:58.400> we<00:07:58.520> can<00:07:58.639> deliver<00:07:58.919> that<00:07:59.039> Gene
inhibitory if we can deliver that Gene
inhibitory if we can deliver that Gene
into<00:07:59.479> these<00:07:59.599> cells<00:08:00.159> and<00:08:00.520> they're<00:08:00.680> not<00:08:00.840> being
into these cells and they're not being
into these cells and they're not being
altered<00:08:01.360> by<00:08:01.479> the<00:08:01.560> expression<00:08:01.840> of<00:08:01.919> the<00:08:02.039> gene<00:08:02.240> of
altered by the expression of the gene of
altered by the expression of the gene of
course<00:08:03.000> and<00:08:03.080> then<00:08:03.240> Flash<00:08:03.560> Blue<00:08:03.759> Light<00:08:04.039> over
course and then Flash Blue Light over
course and then Flash Blue Light over
the<00:08:04.360> entire<00:08:04.960> brain<00:08:05.240> Network<00:08:05.879> just<00:08:06.080> these
the entire brain Network just these
the entire brain Network just these
cells<00:08:07.000> are<00:08:07.159> going<00:08:07.240> to<00:08:07.360> be<00:08:07.479> driven<00:08:08.080> and<00:08:08.199> when
cells are going to be driven and when
cells are going to be driven and when
the<00:08:08.400> light<00:08:08.520> turns<00:08:08.759> off<00:08:08.919> these<00:08:09.039> cells<00:08:09.280> go<00:08:09.400> back
the light turns off these cells go back
the light turns off these cells go back
to<00:08:09.639> normal<00:08:10.039> so<00:08:10.199> there<00:08:10.319> don't<00:08:10.479> seem<00:08:10.639> to<00:08:10.759> be
to normal so there don't seem to be
to normal so there don't seem to be
Adverse<00:08:11.599> Events<00:08:11.840> to<00:08:12.039> that<00:08:12.599> not<00:08:12.720> only<00:08:12.840> can<00:08:12.960> use
Adverse Events to that not only can use
Adverse Events to that not only can use
this<00:08:13.240> to<00:08:13.360> study<00:08:13.599> what<00:08:13.720> these<00:08:13.840> cells<00:08:14.159> do<00:08:14.479> what
this to study what these cells do what
this to study what these cells do what
their<00:08:14.800> power<00:08:15.080> is<00:08:15.319> in<00:08:15.560> Computing<00:08:15.919> in<00:08:16.039> the<00:08:16.120> brain
their power is in Computing in the brain
their power is in Computing in the brain
but<00:08:16.599> you<00:08:16.680> can<00:08:16.840> also<00:08:17.159> use<00:08:17.479> this<00:08:17.879> to<00:08:18.039> try<00:08:18.199> and
but you can also use this to try and
but you can also use this to try and
figure<00:08:18.599> out<00:08:18.919> well<00:08:19.039> maybe<00:08:19.240> we<00:08:19.319> could<00:08:19.520> Jazz<00:08:19.720> up
figure out well maybe we could Jazz up
figure out well maybe we could Jazz up
the<00:08:20.000> activity<00:08:20.360> these<00:08:20.440> cells<00:08:20.720> if<00:08:20.840> indeed
the activity these cells if indeed
the activity these cells if indeed
they're<00:08:21.560> atrophy<00:08:22.560> now<00:08:22.680> I<00:08:22.759> want<00:08:22.840> to<00:08:22.879> tell<00:08:22.960> you<00:08:23.039> a
they're atrophy now I want to tell you a
they're atrophy now I want to tell you a
couple<00:08:23.319> short<00:08:23.599> stories<00:08:24.599> about<00:08:24.840> how<00:08:24.960> we're
couple short stories about how we're
couple short stories about how we're
using<00:08:25.479> this<00:08:25.879> both<00:08:26.039> at<00:08:26.159> the<00:08:26.319> scientific
using this both at the scientific
using this both at the scientific
clinical<00:08:27.680> and<00:08:27.800> preclinical<00:08:28.280> levels<00:08:29.280> one<00:08:29.360> of
clinical and preclinical levels one of
clinical and preclinical levels one of
the<00:08:29.560> questions<00:08:29.879> that<00:08:30.000> we've<00:08:30.440> confronted<00:08:31.440> is
the questions that we've confronted is
the questions that we've confronted is
what<00:08:31.800> are<00:08:31.919> the<00:08:32.000> signals<00:08:32.320> in<00:08:32.399> the<00:08:32.479> brain<00:08:32.680> that
what are the signals in the brain that
what are the signals in the brain that
mediate<00:08:33.240> the<00:08:33.360> sensation<00:08:33.719> of<00:08:33.880> reward<00:08:34.479> because
mediate the sensation of reward because
mediate the sensation of reward because
if<00:08:34.719> you<00:08:34.839> could<00:08:35.000> find<00:08:35.279> those<00:08:35.880> those<00:08:36.000> would<00:08:36.159> be
if you could find those those would be
if you could find those those would be
some<00:08:36.399> of<00:08:36.479> the<00:08:36.599> signals<00:08:36.919> that<00:08:37.039> can<00:08:37.240> drive
some of the signals that can drive
some of the signals that can drive
learning<00:08:38.039> right<00:08:38.200> the<00:08:38.279> brain<00:08:38.440> will<00:08:38.599> do<00:08:38.760> more<00:08:39.120> of
learning right the brain will do more of
learning right the brain will do more of
whatever<00:08:39.719> got<00:08:39.880> that<00:08:40.039> reward<00:08:40.839> and<00:08:40.959> also<00:08:41.159> these
whatever got that reward and also these
whatever got that reward and also these
are<00:08:41.399> signals<00:08:41.760> that<00:08:41.880> go<00:08:42.000> arry<00:08:42.479> in<00:08:42.599> disorders
are signals that go arry in disorders
are signals that go arry in disorders
such<00:08:43.200> as<00:08:43.360> addiction<00:08:44.320> so<00:08:44.440> if<00:08:44.519> we<00:08:44.640> could<00:08:44.720> figure
such as addiction so if we could figure
such as addiction so if we could figure
out<00:08:45.040> which<00:08:45.160> cells<00:08:45.440> they<00:08:45.519> are<00:08:45.680> we<00:08:45.760> can<00:08:45.880> maybe
out which cells they are we can maybe
out which cells they are we can maybe
find<00:08:46.240> new<00:08:46.440> targets<00:08:47.160> for<00:08:47.320> which<00:08:47.480> drugs<00:08:47.760> can<00:08:47.920> be
find new targets for which drugs can be
find new targets for which drugs can be
designed<00:08:48.399> or<00:08:48.519> screened<00:08:48.959> against<00:08:49.560> or<00:08:49.680> maybe
designed or screened against or maybe
designed or screened against or maybe
places<00:08:50.360> where<00:08:50.480> electrodes<00:08:50.959> could<00:08:51.040> be<00:08:51.160> put<00:08:51.279> in
places where electrodes could be put in
places where electrodes could be put in
for<00:08:51.519> people<00:08:51.680> who<00:08:51.839> have<00:08:52.000> very<00:08:52.200> severe
for people who have very severe
for people who have very severe
disability<00:08:54.680> so<00:08:54.839> to<00:08:55.000> do<00:08:55.160> that<00:08:55.560> we<00:08:55.839> came<00:08:56.080> with<00:08:56.160> a
disability so to do that we came with a
disability so to do that we came with a
very<00:08:56.399> simple<00:08:56.640> Paradigm<00:08:57.000> in<00:08:57.080> collaboration
very simple Paradigm in collaboration
very simple Paradigm in collaboration
with<00:08:57.519> the<00:08:57.600> filla<00:08:58.040> group<00:08:58.760> where<00:08:59.279> one<00:08:59.480> side<00:08:59.640> of
with the filla group where one side of
with the filla group where one side of
this<00:08:59.959> little<00:09:00.240> box<00:09:00.720> if<00:09:00.800> the<00:09:00.920> animal<00:09:01.160> goes<00:09:01.360> there
this little box if the animal goes there
this little box if the animal goes there
the<00:09:01.600> animal<00:09:01.800> gets<00:09:01.920> a<00:09:02.040> pulse<00:09:02.200> of<00:09:02.360> light<00:09:02.680> and
the animal gets a pulse of light and
the animal gets a pulse of light and
we're<00:09:02.920> to<00:09:03.040> make<00:09:03.160> different<00:09:03.360> cells<00:09:03.600> in<00:09:03.680> the
we're to make different cells in the
we're to make different cells in the
brain<00:09:03.959> sensitive<00:09:04.320> to<00:09:04.480> light<00:09:05.399> so<00:09:05.680> if<00:09:05.839> these
brain sensitive to light so if these
brain sensitive to light so if these
cells<00:09:06.200> can<00:09:06.320> mediate<00:09:06.640> reward<00:09:06.920> the<00:09:07.000> animal
cells can mediate reward the animal
cells can mediate reward the animal
should<00:09:07.440> go<00:09:07.600> there<00:09:07.720> more<00:09:07.880> and<00:09:08.279> more<00:09:09.279> and<00:09:09.360> so
should go there more and more and so
should go there more and more and so
that's<00:09:09.680> what<00:09:09.800> happens<00:09:10.120> this<00:09:10.279> animal<00:09:10.519> is<00:09:10.600> going
that's what happens this animal is going
that's what happens this animal is going
to<00:09:10.800> go<00:09:10.920> to<00:09:11.040> the<00:09:11.160> right<00:09:11.360> hand<00:09:11.560> side<00:09:12.160> and<00:09:12.320> poke
to go to the right hand side and poke
to go to the right hand side and poke
his<00:09:12.640> nose<00:09:12.920> there<00:09:13.079> and<00:09:13.160> he<00:09:13.240> gets<00:09:13.360> a<00:09:13.480> flash<00:09:13.640> of
his nose there and he gets a flash of
his nose there and he gets a flash of
blue<00:09:13.880> light<00:09:14.040> every<00:09:14.200> times<00:09:14.399> it<00:09:14.519> does<00:09:14.680> that<00:09:14.800> and
blue light every times it does that and
blue light every times it does that and
it'll<00:09:15.079> do<00:09:15.240> that<00:09:15.399> hundreds<00:09:15.920> and<00:09:16.040> hundreds<00:09:16.320> of
it'll do that hundreds and hundreds of
it'll do that hundreds and hundreds of
times<00:09:17.040> these<00:09:17.160> are<00:09:17.240> the<00:09:17.360> dopamine<00:09:17.720> neurons
times these are the dopamine neurons
times these are the dopamine neurons
which<00:09:18.160> some<00:09:18.240> of<00:09:18.320> you<00:09:18.399> may<00:09:18.480> have<00:09:18.560> heard<00:09:18.720> about
which some of you may have heard about
which some of you may have heard about
as<00:09:19.040> some<00:09:19.160> of<00:09:19.240> the<00:09:19.360> pleasure<00:09:19.640> centers<00:09:19.959> in<00:09:20.040> the
as some of the pleasure centers in the
as some of the pleasure centers in the
brain<00:09:20.680> now<00:09:20.800> we've<00:09:20.959> shown<00:09:21.240> that<00:09:21.360> a<00:09:21.480> brief
brain now we've shown that a brief
brain now we've shown that a brief
activation<00:09:22.320> of<00:09:22.480> these<00:09:22.680> is<00:09:22.839> enough<00:09:23.040> indeed<00:09:23.399> to
activation of these is enough indeed to
activation of these is enough indeed to
drive<00:09:24.360> learning<00:09:25.360> now<00:09:25.480> we<00:09:25.560> can<00:09:25.720> generalize<00:09:26.240> the
drive learning now we can generalize the
drive learning now we can generalize the
idea<00:09:27.440> instead<00:09:27.640> of<00:09:27.800> one<00:09:27.959> point<00:09:28.160> in<00:09:28.240> the<00:09:28.360> brain
idea instead of one point in the brain
idea instead of one point in the brain
we<00:09:28.839> can<00:09:29.480> devices<00:09:29.839> that<00:09:29.959> span<00:09:30.279> the<00:09:30.360> brain<00:09:30.640> that
we can devices that span the brain that
we can devices that span the brain that
can<00:09:30.839> deliver<00:09:31.200> light<00:09:31.560> into<00:09:31.760> three-dimensional
can deliver light into three-dimensional
can deliver light into three-dimensional
patterns<00:09:33.160> arrays<00:09:33.480> of<00:09:33.640> optical<00:09:33.920> fibers<00:09:34.279> each
patterns arrays of optical fibers each
patterns arrays of optical fibers each
coupled<00:09:34.720> to<00:09:34.839> its<00:09:35.000> own<00:09:35.279> independent<00:09:35.760> miniature
coupled to its own independent miniature
coupled to its own independent miniature
light<00:09:36.360> source<00:09:37.320> and<00:09:37.399> then<00:09:37.519> we<00:09:37.600> can<00:09:37.720> try<00:09:37.880> to<00:09:38.000> do
light source and then we can try to do
light source and then we can try to do
things<00:09:38.480> in<00:09:38.600> Vivo<00:09:39.040> that<00:09:39.120> have<00:09:39.279> only<00:09:39.440> been<00:09:39.600> done
things in Vivo that have only been done
things in Vivo that have only been done
to<00:09:39.920> date<00:09:40.240> in<00:09:40.560> a<00:09:40.720> dish<00:09:41.279> like<00:09:41.440> highit<00:09:41.920> screening
to date in a dish like highit screening
to date in a dish like highit screening
throughout<00:09:42.839> the<00:09:42.959> entire<00:09:43.279> brain<00:09:43.560> for<00:09:43.720> the
throughout the entire brain for the
throughout the entire brain for the
signals<00:09:44.279> that<00:09:44.399> can<00:09:44.600> cause<00:09:45.240> certain<00:09:45.440> things<00:09:45.600> to
signals that can cause certain things to
signals that can cause certain things to
happen<00:09:45.920> or<00:09:46.079> that<00:09:46.200> could<00:09:46.279> be<00:09:46.440> good<00:09:46.640> clinical
happen or that could be good clinical
happen or that could be good clinical
targets<00:09:47.360> for<00:09:47.519> treating<00:09:48.160> brain<00:09:48.760> disorders<00:09:49.760> and
targets for treating brain disorders and
targets for treating brain disorders and
one<00:09:49.959> St<00:09:50.200> I<00:09:50.279> want<00:09:50.360> to<00:09:50.440> tell<00:09:50.560> you<00:09:50.680> about<00:09:51.000> is<00:09:51.200> how
one St I want to tell you about is how
one St I want to tell you about is how
can<00:09:51.519> we<00:09:51.640> find<00:09:51.920> Targets<00:09:52.279> for<00:09:52.399> treating
can we find Targets for treating
can we find Targets for treating
post-traumatic<00:09:53.680> stress<00:09:53.920> disorder<00:09:54.360> a<00:09:54.440> form<00:09:54.640> of
post-traumatic stress disorder a form of
post-traumatic stress disorder a form of
uncontrolled<00:09:56.399> anxiety<00:09:56.880> and<00:09:57.040> fear<00:09:57.959> and<00:09:58.079> one<00:09:58.200> of
uncontrolled anxiety and fear and one of
uncontrolled anxiety and fear and one of
the<00:09:58.360> things<00:09:58.519> that<00:09:58.640> we<00:09:58.800> did<00:09:59.360> was<00:09:59.480> to<00:09:59.720> adopt<00:10:00.600> a
the things that we did was to adopt a
the things that we did was to adopt a
very<00:10:01.120> classical<00:10:01.920> model<00:10:02.279> of<00:10:02.480> fear<00:10:02.800> this<00:10:02.920> goes
very classical model of fear this goes
very classical model of fear this goes
back<00:10:03.480> you<00:10:03.600> know<00:10:04.000> back<00:10:04.079> to<00:10:04.279> the<00:10:04.839> pavlovian<00:10:05.399> days
back you know back to the pavlovian days
back you know back to the pavlovian days
and<00:10:05.720> it's<00:10:05.880> called<00:10:06.040> pavlovian<00:10:06.480> fear
and it's called pavlovian fear
and it's called pavlovian fear
conditioning<00:10:07.480> where<00:10:07.640> a<00:10:07.760> tone<00:10:08.120> ends<00:10:08.360> with<00:10:08.440> a
conditioning where a tone ends with a
conditioning where a tone ends with a
brief<00:10:08.760> shock<00:10:09.120> the<00:10:09.200> shock<00:10:09.399> isn't<00:10:09.600> painful<00:10:09.959> but
brief shock the shock isn't painful but
brief shock the shock isn't painful but
it's<00:10:10.160> a<00:10:10.240> little<00:10:10.360> Annoying<00:10:11.320> and<00:10:11.519> over<00:10:11.760> time<00:10:12.480> in
it's a little Annoying and over time in
it's a little Annoying and over time in
this<00:10:12.760> case<00:10:12.880> a<00:10:13.000> mouse<00:10:13.279> which<00:10:13.399> is<00:10:13.480> a<00:10:13.560> good<00:10:13.680> animal
this case a mouse which is a good animal
this case a mouse which is a good animal
model<00:10:14.480> commonly<00:10:14.760> used<00:10:15.040> in<00:10:15.160> such<00:10:15.399> experiments
model commonly used in such experiments
model commonly used in such experiments
the<00:10:16.279> animal<00:10:16.480> learns<00:10:16.720> to<00:10:16.880> fear<00:10:17.079> the<00:10:17.160> tone<00:10:17.480> the
the animal learns to fear the tone the
the animal learns to fear the tone the
animal<00:10:17.959> react<00:10:18.560> by<00:10:18.680> freezing<00:10:19.079> sort<00:10:19.240> of<00:10:19.320> like<00:10:19.440> a
animal react by freezing sort of like a
animal react by freezing sort of like a
deer<00:10:19.959> in<00:10:20.079> the
deer in the
deer in the
headlights<00:10:21.839> now<00:10:22.000> the<00:10:22.120> question<00:10:22.399> is<00:10:22.640> what
headlights now the question is what
headlights now the question is what
Targets<00:10:23.200> in<00:10:23.279> the<00:10:23.360> brain<00:10:23.600> can<00:10:23.720> we<00:10:23.920> find<00:10:24.399> that
Targets in the brain can we find that
Targets in the brain can we find that
allow<00:10:24.800> us<00:10:24.920> to<00:10:25.120> overcome<00:10:26.120> this<00:10:26.320> fear<00:10:27.320> so<00:10:27.440> what
allow us to overcome this fear so what
allow us to overcome this fear so what
we<00:10:27.720> do<00:10:28.120> is<00:10:28.240> we<00:10:28.399> play<00:10:28.560> that<00:10:28.640> tone<00:10:28.880> again<00:10:29.399> after
we do is we play that tone again after
we do is we play that tone again after
it's<00:10:29.800> been<00:10:29.959> associated<00:10:30.440> with<00:10:30.560> fear<00:10:31.120> but<00:10:31.240> we
it's been associated with fear but we
it's been associated with fear but we
activate<00:10:31.839> Targets<00:10:32.160> in<00:10:32.240> the<00:10:32.320> brain<00:10:32.600> different
activate Targets in the brain different
activate Targets in the brain different
ones<00:10:33.000> using<00:10:33.240> that<00:10:33.399> optical<00:10:33.720> fiber<00:10:34.160> I<00:10:34.240> told<00:10:34.399> you
ones using that optical fiber I told you
ones using that optical fiber I told you
about<00:10:34.680> on<00:10:34.800> the<00:10:34.880> previous<00:10:35.200> slide<00:10:35.760> in<00:10:35.839> order<00:10:36.079> to
about on the previous slide in order to
about on the previous slide in order to
try<00:10:36.320> and<00:10:36.399> figure<00:10:36.560> out<00:10:36.680> which<00:10:36.800> targets<00:10:37.240> can
try and figure out which targets can
try and figure out which targets can
cause<00:10:37.959> the<00:10:38.079> brain<00:10:38.320> to<00:10:38.519> overcome<00:10:39.279> that<00:10:39.399> memory
cause the brain to overcome that memory
cause the brain to overcome that memory
of<00:10:40.079> fear<00:10:41.079> and<00:10:41.200> so<00:10:41.560> this<00:10:41.720> brief<00:10:42.000> video<00:10:42.200> shows
of fear and so this brief video shows
of fear and so this brief video shows
you<00:10:42.560> one<00:10:42.680> of<00:10:42.800> these<00:10:42.920> targets<00:10:43.320> that<00:10:43.440> we're
you one of these targets that we're
you one of these targets that we're
working<00:10:43.760> on<00:10:43.959> now<00:10:44.320> this<00:10:44.399> is<00:10:44.480> an<00:10:44.600> area<00:10:44.760> in<00:10:44.800> the
working on now this is an area in the
working on now this is an area in the
prefontal<00:10:45.200> cortex<00:10:45.760> a<00:10:45.880> region<00:10:46.160> where<00:10:46.399> we<00:10:46.480> can
prefontal cortex a region where we can
prefontal cortex a region where we can
use<00:10:46.800> cognition<00:10:47.120> to<00:10:47.240> try<00:10:47.360> and<00:10:47.519> overcome
use cognition to try and overcome
use cognition to try and overcome
aversive<00:10:48.639> emotional<00:10:49.000> states<00:10:49.519> and<00:10:49.600> they
aversive emotional states and they
aversive emotional states and they
almost<00:10:49.880> going<00:10:49.959> to<00:10:50.040> hear<00:10:50.160> a<00:10:50.279> tone<00:10:50.639> and<00:10:50.720> the
almost going to hear a tone and the
almost going to hear a tone and the
Flash<00:10:51.000> of<00:10:51.120> light<00:10:51.279> occurred<00:10:51.680> there<00:10:52.000> there's<00:10:52.200> no
Flash of light occurred there there's no
Flash of light occurred there there's no
audio<00:10:52.600> on<00:10:52.720> this<00:10:52.839> but<00:10:52.959> you<00:10:53.040> can<00:10:53.160> see<00:10:53.240> the
audio on this but you can see the
audio on this but you can see the
animals<00:10:53.639> freezing<00:10:54.279> this<00:10:54.440> tone<00:10:55.200> used<00:10:55.399> to<00:10:55.519> mean
animals freezing this tone used to mean
animals freezing this tone used to mean
bad<00:10:55.959> news<00:10:56.360> and<00:10:56.440> there's<00:10:56.560> a<00:10:56.680> little<00:10:56.800> clock<00:10:57.000> in
bad news and there's a little clock in
bad news and there's a little clock in
the<00:10:57.160> lower<00:10:57.360> Le<00:10:57.560> hand<00:10:57.680> corner<00:10:57.959> so<00:10:58.079> you<00:10:58.160> can<00:10:58.240> see
the lower Le hand corner so you can see
the lower Le hand corner so you can see
that<00:10:58.519> this<00:10:58.680> animal<00:10:59.240> is<00:10:59.360> about<00:10:59.519> 2<00:10:59.680> minutes<00:10:59.959> into
that this animal is about 2 minutes into
that this animal is about 2 minutes into
this<00:11:01.079> and<00:11:01.200> now<00:11:01.360> this<00:11:01.560> next<00:11:01.920> clip<00:11:02.320> is<00:11:02.519> just<00:11:02.680> 8
this and now this next clip is just 8
this and now this next clip is just 8
minutes<00:11:03.200> later<00:11:04.200> and<00:11:04.360> the<00:11:04.440> same<00:11:04.639> tone<00:11:04.920> going<00:11:05.000> to
minutes later and the same tone going to
minutes later and the same tone going to
play<00:11:05.320> and<00:11:05.399> the<00:11:05.480> light's<00:11:05.680> going<00:11:05.760> to<00:11:05.880> flash
play and the light's going to flash
play and the light's going to flash
again<00:11:08.279> okay<00:11:08.519> there<00:11:08.639> it<00:11:08.839> goes<00:11:09.600> right<00:11:10.160> uh<00:11:10.760> now
again okay there it goes right uh now
again okay there it goes right uh now
and<00:11:11.600> now<00:11:11.720> you<00:11:11.800> can<00:11:11.959> see<00:11:12.360> just<00:11:12.560> 10<00:11:12.720> minutes<00:11:13.000> into
and now you can see just 10 minutes into
and now you can see just 10 minutes into
the<00:11:13.320> experiment<00:11:14.160> that<00:11:14.320> we've<00:11:14.560> equipped<00:11:14.880> the
the experiment that we've equipped the
the experiment that we've equipped the
brain<00:11:15.200> by<00:11:15.279> photoactivating<00:11:15.800> this<00:11:16.079> area<00:11:16.519> to
brain by photoactivating this area to
brain by photoactivating this area to
overcome<00:11:17.440> the<00:11:17.600> expression<00:11:18.360> of<00:11:18.519> this<00:11:18.680> sphere
overcome the expression of this sphere
overcome the expression of this sphere
memory<00:11:21.320> now<00:11:21.600> over<00:11:21.720> the<00:11:21.839> last<00:11:21.959> couple<00:11:22.240> years
memory now over the last couple years
memory now over the last couple years
we've<00:11:22.600> gone<00:11:22.760> back<00:11:22.920> to<00:11:23.040> the<00:11:23.120> tree<00:11:23.279> of<00:11:23.440> life
we've gone back to the tree of life
we've gone back to the tree of life
because<00:11:23.839> we<00:11:23.959> wanted<00:11:24.160> to<00:11:24.320> find<00:11:24.560> ways<00:11:24.800> to<00:11:24.959> turn
because we wanted to find ways to turn
because we wanted to find ways to turn
circuits<00:11:25.560> in<00:11:25.680> the<00:11:25.800> brain<00:11:26.320> off<00:11:26.880> if<00:11:27.000> we<00:11:27.079> could<00:11:27.240> do
circuits in the brain off if we could do
circuits in the brain off if we could do
that<00:11:27.800> this<00:11:27.920> could<00:11:28.040> be<00:11:28.160> extremely<00:11:28.560> powerful<00:11:29.120> if
that this could be extremely powerful if
that this could be extremely powerful if
you<00:11:29.320> can<00:11:29.480> delete<00:11:30.160> cells<00:11:30.600> just<00:11:30.720> for<00:11:30.880> a<00:11:31.000> few
you can delete cells just for a few
you can delete cells just for a few
milliseconds<00:11:32.120> seconds<00:11:32.399> you<00:11:32.480> can<00:11:32.600> figure<00:11:32.839> out
milliseconds seconds you can figure out
milliseconds seconds you can figure out
what<00:11:33.320> necessary<00:11:33.760> role<00:11:34.000> they<00:11:34.160> play<00:11:34.519> in<00:11:34.639> the
what necessary role they play in the
what necessary role they play in the
circus<00:11:35.000> of<00:11:35.120> which<00:11:35.240> they're<00:11:35.360> embedded<00:11:35.920> and
circus of which they're embedded and
circus of which they're embedded and
we've<00:11:36.200> now<00:11:36.320> surveyed<00:11:36.720> organisms<00:11:37.240> from<00:11:37.399> all
we've now surveyed organisms from all
we've now surveyed organisms from all
over<00:11:37.680> the<00:11:37.800> tree<00:11:38.000> of<00:11:38.120> life<00:11:38.360> every<00:11:38.760> Kingdom<00:11:39.079> of
over the tree of life every Kingdom of
over the tree of life every Kingdom of
life<00:11:39.360> except<00:11:39.560> for<00:11:39.680> Animals<00:11:40.079> we<00:11:40.200> see<00:11:40.399> swh
life except for Animals we see swh
life except for Animals we see swh
differently<00:11:41.720> and<00:11:41.800> we<00:11:41.959> found<00:11:42.160> all<00:11:42.279> sorts<00:11:42.480> of
differently and we found all sorts of
differently and we found all sorts of
molecules<00:11:43.120> they're<00:11:43.279> called<00:11:43.519> Halo<00:11:43.760> adops<00:11:44.120> and
molecules they're called Halo adops and
molecules they're called Halo adops and
arur<00:11:44.480> adops<00:11:44.880> which<00:11:45.079> respond<00:11:45.680> to<00:11:45.839> green<00:11:46.040> and
arur adops which respond to green and
arur adops which respond to green and
yellow<00:11:46.440> light<00:11:46.720> and<00:11:46.839> they<00:11:46.920> do<00:11:47.079> the<00:11:47.240> opposite
yellow light and they do the opposite
yellow light and they do the opposite
thing<00:11:48.040> of<00:11:48.160> the<00:11:48.240> molecule<00:11:48.600> I<00:11:48.680> told<00:11:48.839> you<00:11:48.920> about
thing of the molecule I told you about
thing of the molecule I told you about
before<00:11:49.399> the<00:11:49.480> blue<00:11:49.680> light<00:11:49.839> activator<00:11:50.240> Chan
before the blue light activator Chan
before the blue light activator Chan
opposite<00:11:52.519> let's<00:11:52.680> give<00:11:52.800> an<00:11:52.920> example<00:11:53.200> of<00:11:53.320> where
opposite let's give an example of where
opposite let's give an example of where
we<00:11:53.519> think<00:11:53.680> this<00:11:53.800> is<00:11:53.920> going<00:11:54.000> to<00:11:54.399> go<00:11:55.399> consider
we think this is going to go consider
we think this is going to go consider
for<00:11:55.880> example<00:11:56.760> a<00:11:57.040> condition<00:11:57.519> like<00:11:57.680> epilepsy
for example a condition like epilepsy
for example a condition like epilepsy
where<00:11:58.480> the<00:11:58.600> brain<00:11:58.800> is<00:11:58.959> is<00:11:59.440> overactive<00:12:00.440> now<00:12:00.680> if
where the brain is is overactive now if
where the brain is is overactive now if
drugs<00:12:01.120> fail<00:12:01.360> in<00:12:01.480> epileptic<00:12:01.880> treatment<00:12:02.480> one<00:12:02.600> of
drugs fail in epileptic treatment one of
drugs fail in epileptic treatment one of
the<00:12:02.800> strategies<00:12:03.200> is<00:12:03.320> to<00:12:03.440> remove<00:12:03.720> part<00:12:03.839> of<00:12:03.959> the
the strategies is to remove part of the
the strategies is to remove part of the
brain<00:12:04.279> but<00:12:04.399> that's<00:12:04.519> obviously<00:12:04.800> irreversible
brain but that's obviously irreversible
brain but that's obviously irreversible
and<00:12:05.480> there<00:12:05.560> could<00:12:05.680> be<00:12:05.839> side<00:12:06.040> effects<00:12:06.519> what<00:12:06.600> if
and there could be side effects what if
and there could be side effects what if
we<00:12:06.800> could<00:12:06.920> just<00:12:07.079> turn<00:12:07.399> off<00:12:08.200> that<00:12:08.399> brain<00:12:08.959> for
we could just turn off that brain for
we could just turn off that brain for
the<00:12:09.279> brief<00:12:09.519> amount<00:12:09.680> of<00:12:09.839> time<00:12:10.040> until<00:12:10.240> the
the brief amount of time until the
the brief amount of time until the
seizure<00:12:10.880> dies<00:12:11.399> away<00:12:12.399> and<00:12:12.760> cause<00:12:13.600> the<00:12:13.760> brain<00:12:14.040> to
seizure dies away and cause the brain to
seizure dies away and cause the brain to
be<00:12:14.519> restored<00:12:14.920> to<00:12:15.000> its<00:12:15.120> initial<00:12:15.440> State<00:12:15.839> sort<00:12:16.000> of
be restored to its initial State sort of
be restored to its initial State sort of
like<00:12:16.160> a<00:12:16.240> dynamical<00:12:16.720> system<00:12:17.040> that's<00:12:17.199> being
like a dynamical system that's being
like a dynamical system that's being
coaxed<00:12:17.720> down<00:12:17.880> into<00:12:18.040> a<00:12:18.160> stable<00:12:18.480> State<00:12:19.120> this
coaxed down into a stable State this
coaxed down into a stable State this
animation<00:12:19.720> just<00:12:19.880> tries<00:12:20.120> to<00:12:20.360> explain<00:12:20.680> this
animation just tries to explain this
animation just tries to explain this
concept<00:12:21.240> where<00:12:21.560> we<00:12:21.720> made<00:12:21.880> these<00:12:22.000> cells
concept where we made these cells
concept where we made these cells
sensitive<00:12:22.560> to<00:12:22.639> being<00:12:22.760> turned<00:12:23.040> off<00:12:23.199> with<00:12:23.360> light
sensitive to being turned off with light
sensitive to being turned off with light
and<00:12:23.959> we<00:12:24.120> beam<00:12:24.600> light<00:12:24.800> in<00:12:25.399> and<00:12:25.519> just<00:12:25.680> for<00:12:25.839> the
and we beam light in and just for the
and we beam light in and just for the
time<00:12:26.079> it<00:12:26.199> takes<00:12:26.399> to<00:12:26.519> shut<00:12:26.720> down<00:12:26.800> a<00:12:26.959> seizure
time it takes to shut down a seizure
time it takes to shut down a seizure
we're<00:12:27.959> hoping<00:12:28.199> to<00:12:28.320> be<00:12:28.399> able<00:12:28.519> to<00:12:28.560> turn<00:12:28.680> it<00:12:28.760> on
we're hoping to be able to turn it on
we're hoping to be able to turn it on
and<00:12:29.480> so<00:12:29.639> we<00:12:29.720> don't<00:12:29.880> have<00:12:30.000> data<00:12:30.160> to<00:12:30.240> show<00:12:30.360> you<00:12:30.440> in
and so we don't have data to show you in
and so we don't have data to show you in
this<00:12:30.680> front<00:12:31.120> but<00:12:31.240> we're<00:12:31.440> very<00:12:31.600> excited<00:12:31.920> about
this front but we're very excited about
this front but we're very excited about
this<00:12:33.880> now<00:12:34.079> I<00:12:34.199> want<00:12:34.320> to<00:12:34.440> close<00:12:34.639> in<00:12:34.800> one<00:12:34.959> story
this now I want to close in one story
this now I want to close in one story
which<00:12:35.320> we<00:12:35.480> think<00:12:36.160> is<00:12:36.360> another<00:12:36.639> possibility
which we think is another possibility
which we think is another possibility
which<00:12:37.320> is<00:12:37.480> that<00:12:37.600> maybe<00:12:37.880> these<00:12:38.040> molecules<00:12:38.440> if
which is that maybe these molecules if
which is that maybe these molecules if
you<00:12:38.639> can<00:12:38.720> do<00:12:38.839> ultra<00:12:39.120> precise<00:12:39.440> control<00:12:40.040> could
you can do ultra precise control could
you can do ultra precise control could
be<00:12:40.360> used<00:12:40.639> in<00:12:40.760> the<00:12:40.880> brain<00:12:41.160> itself<00:12:41.920> to<00:12:42.079> make<00:12:42.199> a
be used in the brain itself to make a
be used in the brain itself to make a
new<00:12:42.440> kind<00:12:42.560> of<00:12:42.720> prosthetic<00:12:43.120> an<00:12:43.240> optical
new kind of prosthetic an optical
new kind of prosthetic an optical
prosthetic<00:12:44.399> I<00:12:44.519> already<00:12:44.720> told<00:12:45.040> you<00:12:45.320> that
prosthetic I already told you that
prosthetic I already told you that
electrical<00:12:45.839> stimulators<00:12:46.560> are<00:12:46.720> not<00:12:47.079> uncommon
electrical stimulators are not uncommon
electrical stimulators are not uncommon
75,000<00:12:48.880> people<00:12:49.120> have<00:12:49.279> Parkinson's<00:12:49.760> deep
75,000 people have Parkinson's deep
75,000 people have Parkinson's deep
brain<00:12:50.120> stimulators<00:12:50.639> implanted<00:12:51.399> maybe
brain stimulators implanted maybe
brain stimulators implanted maybe
100,000<00:12:52.160> people<00:12:52.320> have<00:12:52.440> coar<00:12:52.760> implants<00:12:53.160> which
100,000 people have coar implants which
100,000 people have coar implants which
allow<00:12:53.720> them<00:12:53.839> to<00:12:54.480> hear<00:12:55.480> there's<00:12:55.680> another<00:12:55.920> thing
allow them to hear there's another thing
allow them to hear there's another thing
which<00:12:56.199> you<00:12:56.320> got<00:12:56.440> to<00:12:56.560> get<00:12:56.680> these<00:12:56.839> genes<00:12:57.160> into
which you got to get these genes into
which you got to get these genes into
cells<00:12:58.279> and<00:12:58.399> New<00:12:58.639> Hope<00:12:58.959> and<00:12:59.040> gene<00:12:59.279> therapy<00:12:59.560> has
cells and New Hope and gene therapy has
cells and New Hope and gene therapy has
been<00:12:59.839> developed<00:13:00.560> because<00:13:01.079> there<00:13:01.399> viruses
been developed because there viruses
been developed because there viruses
like<00:13:01.959> the<00:13:02.079> adinos<00:13:02.399> associated<00:13:02.760> virus<00:13:03.079> which
like the adinos associated virus which
like the adinos associated virus which
probably<00:13:03.440> most<00:13:03.600> of<00:13:03.680> us<00:13:03.839> around<00:13:04.040> this<00:13:04.160> room
probably most of us around this room
probably most of us around this room
have<00:13:04.680> and<00:13:04.800> it<00:13:04.880> doesn't<00:13:05.079> have<00:13:05.199> any<00:13:05.360> symptoms
have and it doesn't have any symptoms
have and it doesn't have any symptoms
which<00:13:06.240> have<00:13:06.320> been<00:13:06.440> used<00:13:06.639> in<00:13:06.800> hundreds<00:13:07.040> of
which have been used in hundreds of
which have been used in hundreds of
patients<00:13:07.800> deliver<00:13:08.160> genes<00:13:08.639> into<00:13:09.199> the<00:13:09.320> brain<00:13:09.519> or
patients deliver genes into the brain or
patients deliver genes into the brain or
the<00:13:09.800> body<00:13:10.399> and<00:13:10.560> so<00:13:10.760> far<00:13:10.920> there<00:13:11.040> have<00:13:11.199> not<00:13:11.320> been
the body and so far there have not been
the body and so far there have not been
serious<00:13:11.920> Adverse<00:13:12.279> Events<00:13:12.639> associated<00:13:13.040> with
serious Adverse Events associated with
serious Adverse Events associated with
the<00:13:13.639> virus<00:13:14.639> there's<00:13:14.880> one<00:13:15.079> last<00:13:15.240> Alpha<00:13:15.560> in<00:13:15.639> the
the virus there's one last Alpha in the
the virus there's one last Alpha in the
room<00:13:16.399> the<00:13:16.519> proteins<00:13:17.000> themselves<00:13:17.320> which<00:13:17.440> come
room the proteins themselves which come
room the proteins themselves which come
from<00:13:17.760> algae<00:13:18.160> and<00:13:18.320> bacteria<00:13:18.839> and<00:13:18.959> funguses<00:13:19.440> and
from algae and bacteria and funguses and
from algae and bacteria and funguses and
all<00:13:19.720> over<00:13:20.160> the<00:13:20.240> Tree<00:13:20.480> of<00:13:20.639> Life<00:13:21.560> most<00:13:21.720> of<00:13:21.839> us
all over the Tree of Life most of us
all over the Tree of Life most of us
don't<00:13:22.199> have<00:13:22.480> funguses<00:13:22.880> or<00:13:23.000> algae<00:13:23.240> in<00:13:23.320> our
don't have funguses or algae in our
don't have funguses or algae in our
brain<00:13:23.760> so<00:13:23.880> what<00:13:23.959> is<00:13:24.040> our<00:13:24.160> brain<00:13:24.360> going<00:13:24.440> to<00:13:24.560> do
brain so what is our brain going to do
brain so what is our brain going to do
if<00:13:24.800> we<00:13:24.920> put<00:13:25.040> that<00:13:25.160> in<00:13:25.360> are<00:13:25.440> the<00:13:25.560> cells<00:13:25.800> going<00:13:25.880> to
if we put that in are the cells going to
if we put that in are the cells going to
tolerate<00:13:26.320> it<00:13:26.639> will<00:13:26.760> the<00:13:26.839> immune<00:13:27.120> system<00:13:27.440> react
tolerate it will the immune system react
tolerate it will the immune system react
it's<00:13:28.399> early<00:13:28.600> days<00:13:29.160> these<00:13:29.279> have<00:13:29.399> not<00:13:29.519> been<00:13:29.600> done
it's early days these have not been done
it's early days these have not been done
in<00:13:29.839> humans<00:13:30.199> yet<00:13:30.440> but<00:13:30.519> we're<00:13:30.600> working<00:13:30.839> a
in humans yet but we're working a
in humans yet but we're working a
variety<00:13:31.240> of<00:13:31.399> studies<00:13:32.000> to<00:13:32.160> try<00:13:32.320> and<00:13:32.800> examine
variety of studies to try and examine
variety of studies to try and examine
this<00:13:33.399> and<00:13:33.519> so<00:13:33.680> far<00:13:33.880> we<00:13:34.000> haven't<00:13:34.240> seen<00:13:34.839> overt
this and so far we haven't seen overt
this and so far we haven't seen overt
reactions<00:13:36.120> of<00:13:36.240> any<00:13:36.399> severity<00:13:37.040> to<00:13:37.320> these
reactions of any severity to these
reactions of any severity to these
molecules<00:13:38.480> or<00:13:39.000> to<00:13:39.360> these<00:13:39.839> um<00:13:40.079> the
molecules or to these um the
molecules or to these um the
illumination<00:13:41.040> of<00:13:41.120> the<00:13:41.199> brain<00:13:41.440> with<00:13:41.639> light<00:13:41.880> so
illumination of the brain with light so
illumination of the brain with light so
it's<00:13:42.160> early<00:13:42.399> days<00:13:42.600> to<00:13:42.839> up<00:13:43.000> front<00:13:43.519> but<00:13:43.600> we're
it's early days to up front but we're
it's early days to up front but we're
excited<00:13:44.120> about<00:13:44.279> it<00:13:45.079> I<00:13:45.160> want<00:13:45.320> to<00:13:45.440> close<00:13:45.639> in<00:13:45.800> one
excited about it I want to close in one
excited about it I want to close in one
story<00:13:46.720> which<00:13:46.880> we<00:13:47.000> think<00:13:47.360> could<00:13:47.600> potentially
story which we think could potentially
story which we think could potentially
be<00:13:48.560> a<00:13:48.680> clinical
be a clinical
be a clinical
application<00:13:50.959> now<00:13:51.600> there<00:13:51.680> are<00:13:51.839> many<00:13:52.000> forms<00:13:52.199> of
application now there are many forms of
application now there are many forms of
blindness<00:13:53.360> where<00:13:53.480> the<00:13:53.639> photo<00:13:53.880> receptors<00:13:54.320> our
blindness where the photo receptors our
blindness where the photo receptors our
light<00:13:54.759> sensors<00:13:55.160> that<00:13:55.240> are<00:13:55.360> in<00:13:55.480> the<00:13:55.560> back<00:13:55.720> of
light sensors that are in the back of
light sensors that are in the back of
our<00:13:56.000> eye<00:13:56.800> are<00:13:57.040> gone<00:13:57.560> and<00:13:57.639> the<00:13:57.759> retina<00:13:58.079> of
our eye are gone and the retina of
our eye are gone and the retina of
course<00:13:58.320> is<00:13:58.440> a<00:13:58.720> complex<00:13:59.040> structure<00:13:59.800> let's<00:13:59.959> zoom
course is a complex structure let's zoom
course is a complex structure let's zoom
in<00:14:00.240> on<00:14:00.320> it<00:14:00.480> here<00:14:00.600> so<00:14:00.680> we<00:14:00.759> can<00:14:00.880> kind<00:14:00.959> of<00:14:01.040> see<00:14:01.160> it
in on it here so we can kind of see it
in on it here so we can kind of see it
in<00:14:01.360> more<00:14:01.519> detail<00:14:02.320> the<00:14:02.440> photo<00:14:02.680> receptor<00:14:03.040> cells
in more detail the photo receptor cells
in more detail the photo receptor cells
are<00:14:03.600> shown<00:14:03.880> here<00:14:04.000> at<00:14:04.079> the<00:14:04.240> top<00:14:04.839> and<00:14:04.959> then<00:14:05.199> the
are shown here at the top and then the
are shown here at the top and then the
signals<00:14:05.720> that<00:14:05.800> are<00:14:05.959> detected<00:14:06.360> by<00:14:06.440> the<00:14:06.519> photo
signals that are detected by the photo
signals that are detected by the photo
receptors<00:14:07.120> are<00:14:07.279> transformed<00:14:07.839> through
receptors are transformed through
receptors are transformed through
various<00:14:08.240> computations<00:14:09.079> until<00:14:09.320> finally<00:14:09.800> that
various computations until finally that
various computations until finally that
layer<00:14:10.240> cells<00:14:10.440> at<00:14:10.560> the<00:14:10.680> bottom<00:14:10.959> the<00:14:11.040> gangling
layer cells at the bottom the gangling
layer cells at the bottom the gangling
cells<00:14:11.720> relay<00:14:12.040> the<00:14:12.199> information<00:14:12.920> to<00:14:13.040> the<00:14:13.160> brain
cells relay the information to the brain
cells relay the information to the brain
where<00:14:13.800> we<00:14:13.920> see<00:14:14.160> that<00:14:14.360> as
where we see that as
where we see that as
perception<00:14:16.240> in<00:14:16.360> many<00:14:16.519> forms<00:14:16.720> of<00:14:16.839> blindness
perception in many forms of blindness
perception in many forms of blindness
like<00:14:17.360> right<00:14:17.800> Pigmentosa<00:14:18.720> or<00:14:19.120> macro
like right Pigmentosa or macro
like right Pigmentosa or macro
degeneration<00:14:20.440> the<00:14:20.560> photo<00:14:20.759> receptor<00:14:21.160> cells
degeneration the photo receptor cells
degeneration the photo receptor cells
have<00:14:21.880> atrophied<00:14:22.320> or<00:14:22.440> been<00:14:22.959> destroyed<00:14:23.959> now<00:14:24.720> how
have atrophied or been destroyed now how
have atrophied or been destroyed now how
could<00:14:25.120> you<00:14:25.240> repair<00:14:25.519> this<00:14:25.680> it's<00:14:25.800> not<00:14:25.920> even
could you repair this it's not even
could you repair this it's not even
clear<00:14:26.320> that<00:14:26.440> a<00:14:26.560> drug<00:14:26.839> could<00:14:27.040> cause<00:14:27.600> this<00:14:27.720> to<00:14:27.839> be
clear that a drug could cause this to be
clear that a drug could cause this to be
restored<00:14:28.360> because<00:14:28.519> there's<00:14:28.720> nothing<00:14:28.880> with
restored because there's nothing with
restored because there's nothing with
the<00:14:29.040> drug<00:14:29.199> to<00:14:29.279> bind<00:14:29.560> to<00:14:30.560> on<00:14:30.720> other<00:14:30.880> hand<00:14:31.040> light
the drug to bind to on other hand light
the drug to bind to on other hand light
can<00:14:31.320> still<00:14:31.480> get<00:14:31.639> into<00:14:31.800> the<00:14:31.959> eye<00:14:32.240> right<00:14:33.120> the<00:14:33.240> eye
can still get into the eye right the eye
can still get into the eye right the eye
is<00:14:33.519> still<00:14:33.680> transparent<00:14:34.279> and<00:14:34.399> you<00:14:34.519> can<00:14:34.639> get
is still transparent and you can get
is still transparent and you can get
light<00:14:34.959> in<00:14:35.680> so<00:14:35.880> what<00:14:35.959> if<00:14:36.040> we<00:14:36.160> could<00:14:36.360> just<00:14:36.720> take
light in so what if we could just take
light in so what if we could just take
these<00:14:37.360> Channel<00:14:37.680> adops<00:14:38.079> and<00:14:38.160> other<00:14:38.320> molecules
these Channel adops and other molecules
these Channel adops and other molecules
and<00:14:38.880> install<00:14:39.240> them<00:14:39.639> on<00:14:39.759> some<00:14:39.880> of<00:14:40.000> these<00:14:40.160> other
and install them on some of these other
and install them on some of these other
spared<00:14:40.720> cells<00:14:41.000> and<00:14:41.120> convert<00:14:41.399> them<00:14:41.560> into
spared cells and convert them into
spared cells and convert them into
little<00:14:41.920> cameras<00:14:42.560> and<00:14:42.720> because<00:14:42.920> there's<00:14:43.079> so
little cameras and because there's so
little cameras and because there's so
many<00:14:43.399> of<00:14:43.519> these<00:14:43.639> cells<00:14:43.880> in<00:14:43.959> the<00:14:44.079> eye
many of these cells in the eye
many of these cells in the eye
potentially<00:14:44.759> they<00:14:44.839> could<00:14:44.920> be<00:14:45.040> very<00:14:45.160> high
potentially they could be very high
potentially they could be very high
resolution
resolution
resolution
cameras<00:14:47.759> so<00:14:48.440> this<00:14:48.560> is<00:14:48.639> some<00:14:48.800> work<00:14:48.920> that<00:14:49.040> we're
cameras so this is some work that we're
cameras so this is some work that we're
doing<00:14:49.680> it's<00:14:49.880> being<00:14:50.639> both<00:14:50.839> led<00:14:51.120> by<00:14:51.440> one<00:14:51.519> of<00:14:51.600> our
doing it's being both led by one of our
doing it's being both led by one of our
collaborators<00:14:52.160> Alan<00:14:52.360> hoger<00:14:52.839> at<00:14:52.920> USC<00:14:53.360> and
collaborators Alan hoger at USC and
collaborators Alan hoger at USC and
being<00:14:54.120> sought<00:14:54.360> to<00:14:54.440> be<00:14:54.519> commercialized<00:14:55.079> by<00:14:55.160> a
being sought to be commercialized by a
being sought to be commercialized by a
startup<00:14:55.560> company<00:14:55.800> EOS<00:14:56.079> Neuroscience<00:14:56.639> which
startup company EOS Neuroscience which
startup company EOS Neuroscience which
is<00:14:56.800> funded<00:14:57.079> by<00:14:57.199> the<00:14:57.279> NIH<00:14:58.240> and<00:14:58.320> what<00:14:58.440> you<00:14:58.560> see
is funded by the NIH and what you see
is funded by the NIH and what you see
see<00:14:58.839> here<00:14:58.920> is<00:14:59.000> a<00:14:59.120> mouse<00:14:59.600> trying<00:14:59.800> to<00:14:59.880> solve<00:15:00.079> a
see here is a mouse trying to solve a
see here is a mouse trying to solve a
maze<00:15:00.560> it's<00:15:00.680> a<00:15:00.759> six<00:15:01.040> arm<00:15:01.360> Maze<00:15:01.600> and<00:15:01.680> there's<00:15:01.800> a
maze it's a six arm Maze and there's a
maze it's a six arm Maze and there's a
bit<00:15:02.000> of<00:15:02.120> water<00:15:02.320> in<00:15:02.480> the<00:15:02.800> Maze<00:15:03.000> to<00:15:03.079> motivate<00:15:03.360> the
bit of water in the Maze to motivate the
bit of water in the Maze to motivate the
mouse<00:15:03.639> to<00:15:03.720> move<00:15:03.880> where<00:15:04.000> he'll<00:15:04.160> just<00:15:04.279> sit<00:15:04.480> there
mouse to move where he'll just sit there
mouse to move where he'll just sit there
and<00:15:05.199> the<00:15:05.320> goal<00:15:05.480> of<00:15:05.600> course<00:15:05.759> of<00:15:05.880> this<00:15:06.040> maze<00:15:06.279> is
and the goal of course of this maze is
and the goal of course of this maze is
to<00:15:06.680> get<00:15:06.759> out<00:15:06.880> of<00:15:06.959> the<00:15:07.040> water<00:15:07.199> and<00:15:07.320> go<00:15:07.440> to<00:15:07.560> a
to get out of the water and go to a
to get out of the water and go to a
little<00:15:07.880> platform<00:15:08.680> that's<00:15:08.880> under<00:15:09.160> the<00:15:09.320> lit<00:15:09.800> top
little platform that's under the lit top
little platform that's under the lit top
Port<00:15:11.279> now<00:15:11.440> mice<00:15:11.639> are<00:15:11.800> smart<00:15:12.040> so<00:15:12.199> this<00:15:12.320> mouse
Port now mice are smart so this mouse
Port now mice are smart so this mouse
solves<00:15:12.759> the<00:15:12.880> maze<00:15:13.079> eventually<00:15:13.440> but<00:15:13.519> he<00:15:13.639> does<00:15:13.720> a
solves the maze eventually but he does a
solves the maze eventually but he does a
Brute<00:15:14.040> Force<00:15:14.279> search<00:15:14.560> he's<00:15:14.720> swimming<00:15:15.040> down
Brute Force search he's swimming down
Brute Force search he's swimming down
every<00:15:15.959> Avenue<00:15:16.440> until<00:15:16.600> he<00:15:16.720> finally<00:15:17.000> gets<00:15:17.199> to
every Avenue until he finally gets to
every Avenue until he finally gets to
the<00:15:17.519> platform<00:15:18.519> so<00:15:18.680> he's<00:15:18.800> not<00:15:18.920> using<00:15:19.240> Vision<00:15:19.600> to
the platform so he's not using Vision to
the platform so he's not using Vision to
do<00:15:20.000> it<00:15:21.000> these<00:15:21.199> different<00:15:21.440> mice<00:15:21.680> are<00:15:21.880> different
do it these different mice are different
do it these different mice are different
mutations<00:15:22.680> that<00:15:22.800> recapitulate<00:15:23.399> different
mutations that recapitulate different
mutations that recapitulate different
kinds<00:15:24.160> of<00:15:24.320> blindness<00:15:24.759> that<00:15:25.000> that<00:15:25.120> affect
kinds of blindness that that affect
kinds of blindness that that affect
humans<00:15:26.040> and<00:15:26.120> so<00:15:26.240> we're<00:15:26.440> being<00:15:26.800> careful<00:15:27.120> and
humans and so we're being careful and
humans and so we're being careful and
trying<00:15:27.360> to<00:15:27.480> look<00:15:27.600> at<00:15:27.680> these<00:15:27.839> different<00:15:28.040> models
trying to look at these different models
trying to look at these different models
so<00:15:28.399> we<00:15:28.759> with<00:15:28.839> a<00:15:28.959> generalized
so we with a generalized
so we with a generalized
approach<00:15:31.959> so<00:15:32.399> how<00:15:32.519> we<00:15:32.639> going<00:15:32.720> to<00:15:32.800> solve<00:15:33.000> this
approach so how we going to solve this
approach so how we going to solve this
well<00:15:33.319> we're<00:15:33.440> going<00:15:33.560> to<00:15:33.639> do<00:15:33.720> exactly<00:15:33.959> what<00:15:34.040> we
well we're going to do exactly what we
well we're going to do exactly what we
outl<00:15:34.399> the<00:15:34.480> previous<00:15:34.720> slide<00:15:34.920> we're<00:15:35.040> going<00:15:35.120> to
outl the previous slide we're going to
outl the previous slide we're going to
take<00:15:35.360> these<00:15:35.560> blue<00:15:35.800> light<00:15:36.279> photosensors<00:15:37.240> and
take these blue light photosensors and
take these blue light photosensors and
install<00:15:37.759> them<00:15:38.279> onto<00:15:38.720> a<00:15:38.839> layer<00:15:39.040> of<00:15:39.160> cells<00:15:39.399> in
install them onto a layer of cells in
install them onto a layer of cells in
the<00:15:39.560> middle<00:15:39.759> of<00:15:39.839> the<00:15:39.959> retina<00:15:40.519> in<00:15:40.639> the<00:15:40.759> back<00:15:40.880> of
the middle of the retina in the back of
the middle of the retina in the back of
the<00:15:41.120> eye<00:15:41.680> and<00:15:41.800> convert<00:15:42.160> them<00:15:42.360> into<00:15:42.560> a<00:15:42.680> camera
the eye and convert them into a camera
the eye and convert them into a camera
just<00:15:43.720> like<00:15:43.880> installing<00:15:44.199> solar<00:15:44.480> cells<00:15:44.800> all
just like installing solar cells all
just like installing solar cells all
over<00:15:45.120> those<00:15:45.279> neurons<00:15:45.639> to<00:15:45.800> make<00:15:46.000> them<00:15:46.440> light
over those neurons to make them light
over those neurons to make them light
sensitive<00:15:47.440> light<00:15:47.639> is<00:15:47.759> converted<00:15:48.079> to
sensitive light is converted to
sensitive light is converted to
electricity<00:15:48.680> on<00:15:48.959> them<00:15:49.959> so<00:15:50.120> this<00:15:50.279> mouse<00:15:50.519> was
electricity on them so this mouse was
electricity on them so this mouse was
blind<00:15:50.959> a<00:15:51.040> couple<00:15:51.240> weeks<00:15:51.519> before<00:15:51.759> this
blind a couple weeks before this
blind a couple weeks before this
experiment<00:15:52.720> and<00:15:52.839> receive<00:15:53.199> one<00:15:53.600> dose<00:15:53.880> of<00:15:54.040> this
experiment and receive one dose of this
experiment and receive one dose of this
photosensitive<00:15:55.240> molecule<00:15:55.600> in<00:15:55.680> a<00:15:55.800> virus<00:15:56.160> and
photosensitive molecule in a virus and
photosensitive molecule in a virus and
now<00:15:56.360> you<00:15:56.440> can<00:15:56.519> see<00:15:56.639> the<00:15:56.759> animal<00:15:57.040> can<00:15:57.199> indeed
now you can see the animal can indeed
now you can see the animal can indeed
avoid<00:15:57.759> walls<00:15:58.000> and<00:15:58.120> go<00:15:58.240> to<00:15:58.319> the<00:15:58.800> platform<00:15:59.800> and
avoid walls and go to the platform and
avoid walls and go to the platform and
make<00:16:00.360> cognitive<00:16:00.839> use<00:16:01.839> of<00:16:02.079> its<00:16:02.279> eyes<00:16:02.600> again<00:16:03.440> and
make cognitive use of its eyes again and
make cognitive use of its eyes again and
to<00:16:03.800> point<00:16:04.000> out<00:16:04.319> the<00:16:04.600> power<00:16:04.800> of<00:16:04.920> this<00:16:05.040> these
to point out the power of this these
to point out the power of this these
animals<00:16:05.440> are<00:16:05.560> able<00:16:05.759> to<00:16:05.920> get<00:16:06.000> to<00:16:06.120> that<00:16:06.240> platform
animals are able to get to that platform
animals are able to get to that platform
just<00:16:06.800> as<00:16:06.920> fast<00:16:07.120> as<00:16:07.240> animals<00:16:07.600> have<00:16:07.759> seen<00:16:08.360> their
just as fast as animals have seen their
just as fast as animals have seen their
entire<00:16:08.839> life<00:16:09.079> so<00:16:09.199> this<00:16:09.319> preclinical<00:16:09.800> study<00:16:10.399> I
entire life so this preclinical study I
entire life so this preclinical study I
think<00:16:10.639> bodess<00:16:11.000> hope<00:16:11.399> for<00:16:11.560> the<00:16:11.680> kinds<00:16:11.839> of
think bodess hope for the kinds of
think bodess hope for the kinds of
things<00:16:12.079> we're<00:16:12.240> hoping<00:16:12.440> to<00:16:12.600> do<00:16:13.279> in<00:16:13.399> the
things we're hoping to do in the
things we're hoping to do in the
future<00:16:15.519> to<00:16:15.720> close<00:16:16.160> I<00:16:16.240> want<00:16:16.360> to<00:16:16.440> point<00:16:16.639> out<00:16:16.759> that
future to close I want to point out that
future to close I want to point out that
we're<00:16:17.040> also<00:16:17.240> exploring<00:16:17.720> new<00:16:17.880> business<00:16:18.160> models
we're also exploring new business models
we're also exploring new business models
for<00:16:18.560> this<00:16:18.639> new<00:16:18.759> field<00:16:18.959> of<00:16:19.040> neurot<00:16:19.279> Technology
for this new field of neurot Technology
for this new field of neurot Technology
we're<00:16:20.120> developing<00:16:20.480> these<00:16:20.600> tools<00:16:20.920> but<00:16:21.000> we
we're developing these tools but we
we're developing these tools but we
share<00:16:21.360> them<00:16:21.519> freely<00:16:21.839> with<00:16:21.959> hundreds<00:16:22.240> of
share them freely with hundreds of
share them freely with hundreds of
groups<00:16:22.639> all<00:16:22.720> over<00:16:22.880> the<00:16:23.000> world<00:16:23.360> so<00:16:23.639> people<00:16:23.839> can
groups all over the world so people can
groups all over the world so people can
study<00:16:24.480> and<00:16:24.600> try<00:16:24.720> to<00:16:24.839> treat<00:16:25.079> different
study and try to treat different
study and try to treat different
disorders<00:16:26.279> and<00:16:26.360> our<00:16:26.560> hope<00:16:26.759> is<00:16:26.920> that<00:16:27.160> by
disorders and our hope is that by
disorders and our hope is that by
figuring<00:16:27.920> out<00:16:28.560> brain<00:16:28.720> circuits<00:16:29.040> at<00:16:29.160> a<00:16:29.240> level
figuring out brain circuits at a level
figuring out brain circuits at a level
of<00:16:29.600> abstraction<00:16:30.120> that<00:16:30.240> lets<00:16:30.440> us<00:16:30.800> repair<00:16:31.160> them
of abstraction that lets us repair them
of abstraction that lets us repair them
and<00:16:31.399> engineer<00:16:31.839> them<00:16:32.399> we<00:16:32.519> can<00:16:32.680> take<00:16:32.920> some<00:16:33.040> of
and engineer them we can take some of
and engineer them we can take some of
these<00:16:33.240> attractable<00:16:33.680> disorders<00:16:34.160> that<00:16:34.240> I<00:16:34.319> told
these attractable disorders that I told
these attractable disorders that I told
you<00:16:34.560> about<00:16:34.720> earlier<00:16:35.600> practically<00:16:35.920> none<00:16:36.040> of
you about earlier practically none of
you about earlier practically none of
which<00:16:36.279> are<00:16:36.360> cured<00:16:36.959> and<00:16:37.000> in<00:16:37.120> the<00:16:37.240> 21st<00:16:37.639> century
which are cured and in the 21st century
which are cured and in the 21st century
make<00:16:38.639> them<00:16:38.839> history<00:16:39.399> thank
you<00:16:53.880> so<00:16:54.319> some<00:16:54.480> of<00:16:54.600> the<00:16:54.720> stuff<00:16:54.920> is<00:16:55.000> a<00:16:55.120> little
dense
dense
dense
but<00:16:59.160> the<00:16:59.319> implications<00:16:59.920> of<00:17:00.120> being<00:17:00.319> able<00:17:00.560> to
but the implications of being able to
but the implications of being able to
control<00:17:01.959> seizures<00:17:02.519> or<00:17:02.800> epilepsy<00:17:03.399> with<00:17:03.600> light
control seizures or epilepsy with light
control seizures or epilepsy with light
instead<00:17:04.160> of<00:17:04.600> drugs<00:17:05.600> and<00:17:05.760> being<00:17:05.959> able<00:17:06.120> to
instead of drugs and being able to
instead of drugs and being able to
Target<00:17:06.679> this<00:17:07.280> specifically<00:17:08.280> is<00:17:08.400> a<00:17:08.600> first
Target this specifically is a first
Target this specifically is a first
step<00:17:10.559> the<00:17:10.760> second<00:17:11.039> thing<00:17:11.199> that<00:17:11.360> I<00:17:11.480> think<00:17:11.679> I
step the second thing that I think I
step the second thing that I think I
heard<00:17:12.000> you<00:17:12.160> say<00:17:12.520> is<00:17:13.039> you<00:17:13.160> can<00:17:13.360> now<00:17:13.919> control<00:17:14.919> the
heard you say is you can now control the
heard you say is you can now control the
brain<00:17:15.720> in<00:17:15.919> two<00:17:16.240> colors<00:17:16.959> mhm<00:17:17.640> like<00:17:17.760> an<00:17:17.880> onoff
brain in two colors mhm like an onoff
brain in two colors mhm like an onoff
switch<00:17:18.919> that's<00:17:19.120> right<00:17:19.600> which<00:17:19.799> makes<00:17:20.160> every
switch that's right which makes every
switch that's right which makes every
impulse<00:17:20.919> going<00:17:21.120> through<00:17:21.360> the<00:17:21.480> brain<00:17:21.799> a<00:17:21.959> binary
impulse going through the brain a binary
impulse going through the brain a binary
code<00:17:23.439> right<00:17:24.160> yeah<00:17:24.280> so<00:17:24.400> with<00:17:24.559> blue<00:17:24.760> light<00:17:24.919> we
code right yeah so with blue light we
code right yeah so with blue light we
can<00:17:25.120> drive<00:17:25.439> information<00:17:25.919> in<00:17:26.039> this<00:17:26.319> form<00:17:26.520> of<00:17:26.600> a
can drive information in this form of a
can drive information in this form of a
one<00:17:27.079> and<00:17:27.240> by<00:17:27.360> turning<00:17:27.640> things<00:17:27.839> off<00:17:28.039> it's<00:17:28.120> more
one and by turning things off it's more
one and by turning things off it's more
like<00:17:28.679> zero<00:17:29.039> so<00:17:29.520> our<00:17:29.679> hope<00:17:29.880> is<00:17:29.960> to<00:17:30.120> eventually
like zero so our hope is to eventually
like zero so our hope is to eventually
build<00:17:31.400> Co<00:17:31.559> brain<00:17:31.840> co-processors<00:17:32.480> that<00:17:32.559> work
build Co brain co-processors that work
build Co brain co-processors that work
with<00:17:32.840> the<00:17:32.919> brain<00:17:33.160> so<00:17:33.280> we<00:17:33.360> can<00:17:33.520> augment
with the brain so we can augment
with the brain so we can augment
functions<00:17:34.320> in<00:17:34.840> in<00:17:34.960> people<00:17:35.120> with<00:17:35.559> disabilities
functions in in people with disabilities
functions in in people with disabilities
and<00:17:36.679> in<00:17:36.880> theory<00:17:37.240> that<00:17:37.400> means<00:17:37.840> that<00:17:38.440> as<00:17:38.559> a<00:17:38.760> mouse
and in theory that means that as a mouse
and in theory that means that as a mouse
feels<00:17:40.000> smells<00:17:41.000> hears<00:17:41.600> touches<00:17:42.200> you<00:17:42.320> can<00:17:42.559> model
feels smells hears touches you can model
feels smells hears touches you can model
it<00:17:43.039> out<00:17:43.440> as<00:17:43.559> a<00:17:43.720> string<00:17:44.000> of<00:17:44.120> ones<00:17:44.320> and<00:17:44.640> zeros
it out as a string of ones and zeros
it out as a string of ones and zeros
sure<00:17:46.080> yeah<00:17:46.160> we're<00:17:46.280> hoping<00:17:46.480> to<00:17:46.679> use<00:17:46.840> this<00:17:46.960> as<00:17:47.039> a
sure yeah we're hoping to use this as a
sure yeah we're hoping to use this as a
way<00:17:47.240> of<00:17:47.400> testing<00:17:47.760> what<00:17:47.919> neural<00:17:48.240> codes<00:17:48.600> can
way of testing what neural codes can
way of testing what neural codes can
drive<00:17:49.039> certain<00:17:49.320> behaviors<00:17:49.760> and<00:17:50.120> certain
drive certain behaviors and certain
drive certain behaviors and certain
thoughts<00:17:50.640> and<00:17:50.799> certain<00:17:51.039> feelings<00:17:51.679> and<00:17:51.840> use
thoughts and certain feelings and use
thoughts and certain feelings and use
that<00:17:52.080> to<00:17:52.360> understand<00:17:52.600> more<00:17:52.760> about<00:17:52.919> the
that to understand more about the
that to understand more about the
brain<00:17:54.919> does<00:17:55.080> that<00:17:55.200> mean<00:17:55.360> that<00:17:55.520> someday<00:17:55.880> you
brain does that mean that someday you
brain does that mean that someday you
could<00:17:56.200> download<00:17:56.720> Memories<00:17:57.720> and<00:17:57.919> maybe<00:17:58.120> upload
could download Memories and maybe upload
could download Memories and maybe upload
them<00:17:59.400> well<00:17:59.480> it's<00:17:59.600> something<00:17:59.760> we're<00:17:59.880> starting
them well it's something we're starting
them well it's something we're starting
to<00:18:00.200> work<00:18:00.320> on<00:18:00.520> very<00:18:00.679> hard<00:18:01.000> yeah<00:18:01.320> we're<00:18:01.520> we're
to work on very hard yeah we're we're
to work on very hard yeah we're we're
now<00:18:01.880> working<00:18:02.159> on<00:18:02.520> um<00:18:03.080> some<00:18:03.240> work<00:18:03.440> where<00:18:03.520> we're
now working on um some work where we're
now working on um some work where we're
trying<00:18:03.880> to<00:18:04.120> tile<00:18:04.360> the<00:18:04.480> brain<00:18:04.679> with<00:18:04.799> recording
trying to tile the brain with recording
trying to tile the brain with recording
elements<00:18:05.520> too<00:18:05.720> so<00:18:05.880> we<00:18:06.000> can<00:18:06.320> record
elements too so we can record
elements too so we can record
information<00:18:07.280> and<00:18:07.400> then<00:18:07.559> drive<00:18:07.840> information
information and then drive information
information and then drive information
back<00:18:08.440> in<00:18:08.880> sort<00:18:09.039> of<00:18:09.159> computing<00:18:09.559> what<00:18:09.640> the<00:18:09.760> brain
back in sort of computing what the brain
back in sort of computing what the brain
needs<00:18:10.320> in<00:18:10.400> order<00:18:10.600> to<00:18:10.720> augment<00:18:11.039> its
needs in order to augment its
needs in order to augment its
information<00:18:11.600> processing<00:18:12.559> well<00:18:12.720> that<00:18:12.840> might
information processing well that might
information processing well that might
change<00:18:13.200> a<00:18:13.320> couple<00:18:13.480> of<00:18:13.600> things<00:18:14.000> thank<00:18:14.159> you
change a couple of things thank you
change a couple of things thank you
thank
thank
thank
[Applause]
you
Ed Boyden, neurons, light, light, neurons, PTSD, blindness, medicine, neurology, brain, brains, fiber-optics, science, cure, TED, TED, Talk, Ed, TED-Ed, TEDEducation
